Kaleidoscope Sermon 500

               The Perspectives where Men and Women Place themselves ahead of everything else in existence must stop. The Man Nor the Woman Came First and it is the Divine Asexual Being that had no Reproductive organs but evolved them divinely for us. When We encounter people in the Streets there are Inters, Men and Women and those who don't have Reproductive organs but deserve to survive and not be ostracized to please the Ego of those that consider themselves the perfect men or women. Check Darwin's Theory and look at the Sea Polyp and then look at every Species ever in existence and why do some women get beards and mustaches and some men produce milk its not because either came first but are both offshoots of a Divine Evolutionary chain but that is not a direspect but a difference that we must acknowledge and accept. As Existence first began things got rolling in a necessary way but Because a Being Started Asexual did not ever meant it did not want or is currently involved in a marriage and we at Kaleidoscope believe that we must treat each with respect and that it should be a crime if we cannot respond to there is only one god and that we cannot have the Free natural Birth entitlement as children of the Earth, Solar System and Universe to Declare our Believe in Alpha, Hermatta, Brosyleon, Ibu Jagaat, Abati Gazi, Karima and our Pantheons on many Divine Councils of what we consider the Most Divine Deities and we are demanding the Entitlement to be judged by these laws as Chrisitans want to be Judged by their own laws but Muslims want to be Judged by their own laws so we need Interfaith Laws and they Must be Total Good in Equal Respect and Understanding, Ovastanding and agreeing to disagree respectfully without violating the natural birth entitlements granted to us by the Divine creators and keepers of this existence.  By Pastors Kwame and Paul Rudland

If a Man should let a woman in front of him if he is gay should let a man go ahead of them that they think needed to rush at the moment or is every society going to be ladies first and is that even before the Inters or A sexuals? If a Lesbian Holds the Door for a Straight Woman is that Offensive and if she is a butch should a Straight man hold the door open for her as well ?

When We are of Different Religious Opinions in an Interfaith World Christians and other Religions have to remember when your religion is disrespectful to us please remember as individuals with our own minds that must always discover their own religious path we are entitled to have our own natural Moral Individual Relgious opinion and we must be respected and we don't need to remember you in that way to pray and honor your passing as we believe something different and being forced to watch yall go where we have different opinions on or have different rituals and ceremonies for does not mean we don't care for you any less and it should never be looked at at as disrespectful to not have to appear in places that openly disrespect you to pay the most homage to who you lost and hold dare!!!

Domino Sin Trails

Kaleidoscope Theory 

On Our Journey to Seek Equal Love for All me and my Husband Pastor Paul HannaLand sought Divine Help and we searched deep and far and through many Theological Theories from Ourstory and we Were Contacted by the Divine Supreme Architect Alpha the Original Deity that started Existence way  prior to the 4 billion year old Earth and so we ask all those that consider themselves an Alpha to stop interrupting Divine Prayers and Messages as Alpha is Far away or close but with 13 Trillion Suns and if each of them had 9 Planets there would be 117 Trillion Possible Planets around those Suns and on the Earth they  Still Do not know the True Cost of Sin and Weight As The Divine Alpha a Asexual or Intersex Divine Deity needs the Environment to be adequate So Alpha the Divine Council and the Eternal Children can help all these locations. The Divine Teachings are not to ever take lightly and all must remember the vows and oaths taken by those who wear the cloth and the Responsibilities that are placed upon them and Why We are Petitioning for our own Court and searching for more Judges, Peace Architects, Peace Commanders, Liturgical Dancers, Church and orphan medical staffs, Surgeon  Generals, Interfaith Pastors, Nuns, Preachers, Fire Fighting Generals, Mystitic Arts Teachers..

     Many Stories have Great Moral and Parable lessons that were never once placed in a Bible. The Story of the Boy who cried Wolf is a Beautiful one and necessary for all to understand. There is one thing about that Story along with other Moral Stories and Parables that need to expand upon certain themes as in todays Mini Lesson we Explore a Variation on The Boy who cried Wolf Story. If you have not Read it before please read or listen to it first before continuing with this Lesson. This Story is Called the Girl who Cried Wolf. Once Upon a Time in a Village in the English town of Bristol a Little Girl at the age of 11 lived in a far of Quaint and Private Religious town. Her Name Janessa Whisperton and her family were from two hard working farming families. Janessa would always do all her chores and even the chores of her younger and older siblings when they did not complete their tasks because they were either called to do something else and forgot or kept getting called to do other things until the next day. Janessa on this day would be finishing up tending to the soil on a new patch of cleared land area on the Whisperton's Famous farm; that would help other fruits, vegetables, Flowers, and Trees grow in a special way. A Wolf named Terrible and was kicked out of a Wolf Tribe because he killed another male Wolf named Howlingheart to try and replace him with his Forever Wolf Wife. Terrible was taken in by an English family and cared for with a few minor incidents that they discovered but many other horrible things happened to that family until the English Animal Lovers ZOO came to take the Rogue lone Wolf. Terrible would be in the ZOO for five years and always attacked the handlers who thought he was just being aggressive but Terrible was trying to eat each of them. One night on the month beginning the sixth year of Terrble at the ZOO Terrible opened his Cage and raced towards the Bristol Village to seek freedom and hunt to control a Wolf Tribe in England. Terrible would sadly take a few lives before arriving at the Whisperton Forrest leading up to the Descendants farm. Janessa sees Terrible stalking her and she drops everything she has and runs to warn the Family who sprint out to see whats wrong. Janessa tells them how big Terrible is and he is a 6ft tall wolf but when on two legs is far taller. The Whispertons search but Terrible left the forrest and hid in another Village and hunted there and sadly eat a little boy bringing home Groceries.   The Whispertons row Janessa for dropping the Farm tools, seeds, and for being scared of her own shadow. Janessa cries herself to sleep trying to warn them and even runs out side at 9pm at night to warn her Mother not to go out side to add some special things to the soil. Janessa is sent to her room and slapped by her older Aunt who thinks she is up to something and just simply wants to scare people or make them care for her more than the other Whisperton children. Mrs. Tiffany Whisperton adds the special mixture to the soil and does not notice that she barley escaped being eaten by Terrible who walks all over the farm gaing the scent of Each of the Whispertons. Over the next month Janessa would warn them on 10 separate occasions where either her or one of the others working on the farm were about to be eaten and is beaten and whipped for being a liar. The Whispertons make Janessa go to a Psychologist   and Janessa becomes depressed and is forced to take perscription pills. The Other Siblings kept telling her why do you always want to be the girl who cries wolf when nothings there to become the favorite? Janessa cries but continues working. Janessa would stop taking the pills after a month because it made her too slow to run away from the wolf. 2 months pass and Janessa has not talked to her family besides being cordial and even had to throw many rocks at terrible several times to stop getting eaten but Janessa refused to tell her family or friends. The sad morning that lead to the tragic following events was when Janessa's cousin who slept over finds all the pills and they all force Janessa to take the pills before she is allowed to do chores. Janessa is scared but still does her work but when she sees Terrible she is more frieghtened than she would normally be because of the pills and she falls as Terrible horribly ends her life. Tiffany sceams as she runs with he shovel screaming im sorry Janessa as she fights Terrible who over powers Tiffany and kills her. The Res of the family race behind Terrible but he leaves the Whisperton forrest and races to another nearby forest. The Whispertons bury the Mother and Daughter in their planned Grave sights and the whole Whisperton family begin to go through the stages of Depression as some try to teach the lessons of checking what others say intead of doubting. 

Written by Pastors P and K HannaLand

D and 3 Ep 143

D & 3 Ep 55

Kaleidoscope Bible

First Look at each species and from a distance and how many species can you tell me that are clearly male from female from a 10 foot distance? In Humans Some Women look like men and some men look like women naturally. Many of these humans with opposite sex facial and body features are still straight so this occurrence does not lead to one's sexual preference. The fact that the Rectogenital which is found in horse females, the mouth/ Anus which is found in Sea Polyps, the sexual stimulation both male and females still receive today in many species from anal sex; in my humble spiritual opinion prove to me that our ancestors and many other divine species have these type of sexual organs and particularly the original Divine Creator. For the Divine Creator to be a God it would in fact have to be a Trans Man and never a pure born male. I think most preachers who are disrespectful to the LGBT are also ignorantly disrespectful to many Divine Species and specifically the Divine Creator. I feel most of these people are really false prophets leading people on the wrong spiritual path. Another proof that the creator(s) are hermaphrodite can also be found in How many species in the natural environment have the natural ability to change their sex. The disrespect and abuse of the trans and other LGBT community is a sin that will cost many unless they are willing to change and repent.

Kaleidoscope Theory

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Origins

Section 1: Da Grand Multiverse Creation theory

Section 2: Intelligent Design

Section 3: The Dimensions and the Multiverse

Section 4: Mighty Youth

Section 5:The Great Betrayl

Section 6: The War

Section 7:Aftermath

Section 8: Revolution

Section 9: The Challenge

Section 10: Unforgiving Crisis

Section 11: Restoration

Section 12: The Peace Process

Section 13: Divine Council

Section 14: Restoration

Section 15: Research

Chapter 2: Divine Gardens

1: Environmental Respect

2: Laws of the garden

3: Competitive Disaster

4: Unity

5: Many sins

6: Fall from grace

7: Banishments

Chapter 3: Fallen Empire

Chapter 4: Morals and Ethics

Section 1: Morals

Chapter 5: Persecution

Section 1:

Section 2:Crimes Against Humanity

Section 3:

Section 4:

Section 5:

Section 6:

Section 7:

Section 8: World War 2

Part A: Army of the Pink Triangle

Part B: Alan Turning

Part C: Josephine Baker

Section 9:

Section 10:

Section 11:

Section 12:

Section 13: Stone Wall

Chapter 6: Leadership

Section 1: Leadership

Section 2 : Hermata

Section 3: Kawiya

Section 4: Abati Gizi/ Father Time

Section 5: Ibu Jagat/ Mother Universe

Section 6: Karima

Section 7: Jesus Christ

Section 8: Haile Selassie

Section 9: Mahatma Gandhi

Section 10: Mother Theresa

Section 11: Martin Luther King

Section 12:Emmeline Pankhurst

Section 13: Eleanor Roosevelt

Section 14: Malcom X

Section 15: Claudia Castrosín Verdú

Section 16: Harvey Milk

Section 17: Winston Churchhill

Section 18: Wong Fei Hung

Section 19: Kofi Annan

Section 20: Morihei Ueshiba

Section 21:EDITH WINDSOR

Section 22:ELLEN DEGENERES

Section 23: BAYARD RUSTIN

Section 24:BARBARA GITTINGS

Section 25:AARON FRICKE

Section 26:MARTINA NAVRATILOVA

Section 27: MARSHA JOHNSON

Section 28: Leonard Matlovich

Section 29: RICHARD ISAY

Section 30: LAVERNE COX

Section 31:

Section 32

Section 33:

Section 34:

Section 35:

Section 36:

Section 37:

Section 38:

Section 39:

Section 40:

Chapter 7: Quotes, Poems and Prayers

Section 1 Quotes

Section 2: Poems

Section 3: Prayers

Chapter 8: Vocation

1: Purpose

2: Dedication

3: Discipline

Chapter 9: Dating, Love and Marriage

Section 1: Dating

Section 2: A Comprehension of Love

Section 3: Love Trails

Section 4: Types of Marriage

A) Monogomous

B) Polygamous

Section 5: The Laws of Marriage

Section 6: Tales of Marriage

A:

B:

C:

D:

E:

F:

Chapter 10: Evironmental Awareness

Chapter 11: The growth and maintenance of Medicine (pioneers)

Chapter 12: Science and Discovery

Chapter 13:The Spiritual Energy

Section 1:

Section 8: Mystic Rituals

Section 9: the Study of Chi

Chapter14: The Ever Expanding Multiverse

Chapter 15: the path to salvation

Chapter 16: Human Rights

Chapter 17: Fighting Extinction

Chapter 18: Allies

Chapter 19: Justice

Chapter 20: Against All Odds

Chapter 21: Peace Architecture

Section 1: Peace Keeping

Section 2: Peace Building

Section 3: Peace Architecture

Chapter 22: Emergency Preparation and Response

Chapter 23: Consious Nutrition

Veganism

Chapter 24: Sentient Rights

Chapter 25: The Children of Eternity

Chapter 1: Grand Multiverse Creation theory

Section 1: Da Grand Multiverse Creation Theory

Section 3: Grand Nebular Theories

The Nebular Theory

So…how did the solar system form and end up with all these different types of objects? Currently the best theory is the Nebular Theory . This states that the solar system developed out of an interstellar cloud of dust and gas, called a nebula . This theory best accounts for the objects we currently find in the Solar System and the distribution of these objects.The Nebular Theory would have started with a cloud of gas and dust, most likely left over from a previous supernova. The nebula started to collapse and condense; this collapsing process continued for some time. The Sun-to-be collected most of the mass in the nebula’s center, forming a Protostar . A protostar is an object in which no nuclear fusion has occurred, unlike a star that is undergoing nuclear fusion. A protostar becomes a star when nuclear fusion begins. Most likely the next step was that the nebula flattened into a disk called the Protoplanetary Disk ; planets eventually formed from and in this disk. Three processes occurred with the nebular collapse: Temperatures continued to increase The solar nebula spun faster and faster The solar nebula disk flattened The orderly motions of the solar system today are a direct result of the solar system’s beginnings in a spinning, flattened cloud of gas and dust.

Hermaphordite Evidence
Cell reproduction is the process by which cells divide to form new cells.  Each time a cell divides, it makes a copy of all of its chromosomes, which are tightly coiled strands of DNA, the genetic material that holds the instructions for all life, and sends an identical copy to the new cell that is created.  This is a process called Mitosis, and can be found in greater detail by following the link.  
     Humans have 46 Chromosomes within each of their body cells.  Other species have different numbers of Chromosomes, however.  One species of fern has 1262 of them!  As you might guess, the number of chromosomes does not directly impact the complexity of an organism.  As chromosomes vary in size, one human chromosome can hold genetic information equivalent to the amound ot genetic information in many chromosomes from another organism.  
     A chromosomes consists of two halves, called Chromatids.  These halves are divided in their center by a centromere.  This structure is what attaches to spindle fibers during mitosis to pull one chromatid to each side of the cell when it divides.  
     In humans, 44 of the chromosomes consist of autosomes, and the remaining two are the sex chromosomes.  These chromosomes determine the gender of the organism.  (A male has an X and a Y, while a female has to Xs).  
     In addition, all the chromosomes in an organism excluding the sex chromosomes are part of a homologous pair.  They contain genes to control the same traits but the genes do not have the same instructions.  For example, one chromosome might have the genes for brown eyes while its homolouge might have genes for blue eyes.  One homolouge is inherited from the mother while the other is inherited from the father.  The Cell Cycle      The cell cycle is the of steps that cells take to grow, develop, and reproduce.  It can be broken down into five steps:   G1 Phase S Phase G2 Phase M Phase Cytokinesis G1 Phase      During the G1 Phase, the cell grows and stores up energy that it will use during cell division.  Nutrients are taken in and all the usual cell processes take place.  Once cells are fully grown, they proceed on to the S Phase.   S Phase      During the S Phase, the DNA in the cell's nucleus is copied.  This means that the cell then attains two copies of all the necessary DNA for normal cell activity, leaving a full set to be transferred into the new cell that will be created after the cell divides.   G2 Phase      During this phase, the cell prepares for cell division.  This phase represents a time gap between the time when the cell copies its DNA and when it divides.   M Phase      During this phase, cell division takes place through Mitosis.   Cytokinesis      During Cytokinesis, the cytoplasm in the cell divides and the cell's membrane pinches inward and the cell begins to divide.  Also, when plant cells divide, a cell plate forms between the two new cells to divide them.  After this step, the new cell and sometimes the original cell also restart the cell cycle by beginning G1 Phase again.  However, sometimes cells enter G0 phase, which is a phase where cells exit the cell cycle after they are fully grown and continue to serve their purpose in an organism.   Other Methods of Cell Reprocuction      Several other methods of cell reproduction exist.  These include meiosis and binary fission.  During binary fission, bacterial cells divide asexually.  Meiosis, which is explained in further detail by following the link above, is used to change diploid body cells into haploid reproductive cells.  

In biology, a hermaphrodite (/hɜːrˈmæfrədaɪt/) is an organism that has complete or partial reproductive organs and produces gametes normally associated with both male and female sexes.[1] Many taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrates) do not have separate sexes.[2] In these groups, hermaphroditism is a normal condition, enabling a form of sexual reproduction in which either partner can act as the "female" or "male". For example, the great majority of tunicates, pulmonate snails, opisthobranch snails, earthworms, and slugs are hermaphrodites. Hermaphroditism is also found in some fish species and to a lesser degree in other vertebrates. Most plants are also hermaphrodites. Historically, the term hermaphrodite has also been used to describe ambiguous genitalia and gonadal mosaicism in individuals of gonochoristic species, especially human beings. The word intersex has come into usage for humans, since the word hermaphrodite is considered to be misleading and stigmatizing,[3][4] as well as "scientifically specious and clinically problematic."[5] A rough estimate of the number of hermaphroditic animal species is 65,000.[6] The percentage of animal species that are hermaphroditic is about 5%. (Although the current estimated total number of animal species is about 7.7 million, the study,[6] which estimated the number, 65,000, used an estimated total number of animal species, 1,211,577 from "Classification phylogénétique du vivant (Vol. 2)" - Lecointre and Le Guyader (2001)). Most hermaphroditic species exhibit some degree of self-fertilization. The distribution of self-fertilization rates among animals is similar to that of plants, suggesting that similar processes are operating to direct the evolution of selfing in animals and plants. Etymology[edit] The term derives from the Latin: hermaphroditus, from Ancient Greek: ἑρμαφρόδιτος, romanized: hermaphroditos,[7] which derives from Hermaphroditus (Ἑρμαφρόδιτος), the son of Hermes and Aphrodite in Greek mythology. According to Ovid, he fused with the nymph Salmacis resulting in one individual possessing physical traits of male and female sexes;[8] according to the earlier Diodorus Siculus, he was born with a physical body combining male and female sexes.[9] The word hermaphrodite entered the English lexicon as early as the late fourteenth century.[10] Alexander ab Alexandro stated, using the term hermaphrodite, that the people who bore the sexes of both man and woman were regarded by the Athenians and the Romans as monsters, and thrown into the sea at Athens and into the Tiber at Rome.[11] Zoology Sequential hermaphrodites
Most species of parrotfish start life as females and later change into males. Sequential hermaphrodites (dichogamy) occur in species in which the individual is born as one sex, but can later change into the opposite sex.[12] This contrasts simultaneous hermaphrodites, in which an individual may possess fully functional male and female genitalia. Sequential hermaphroditism is common in fish (particularly teleost fish) and many gastropods (such as the common slipper shell), and some flowering plants. Sequential hermaphrodites can only change sex once.[13] Sequential hermaphroditism can best be understood in terms of behavioral ecology and evolutionary life history theory, as described in the size-advantage mode[14] first proposed by Michael T. Ghiselin[15] which states that if an individual of a certain sex could significantly increase its reproductive success after reaching a certain size, it would be to their advantage to switch to that sex. Sequential hermaphrodites can be divided into three broad categories: Protandry: Where an organism is born as a male, and then changes sex to a female.[12] Example: The clownfish (genus Amphiprion) are colorful reef fish found living in symbiosis with sea anemones. Generally one anemone contains a 'harem', consisting of a large female, a smaller reproductive male, and even smaller non-reproductive males. If the female is removed, the reproductive male will change sex and the largest of the non-reproductive males will mature and become reproductive. It has been shown that fishing pressure can change when the switch from male to female occurs, since fishermen usually prefer to catch the larger fish. The populations are generally changing sex at a smaller size, due to natural selection. Protogyny: Where the organism is born as a female, and then changes sex to a male.[12] Example: wrasses (Family Labridae) are a group of reef fish in which protogyny is common. Wrasses also have an uncommon life history strategy, which is termed diandry (literally, two males). In these species, two male morphs exists: an initial phase male and a terminal phase male. Initial phase males do not look like males and spawn in groups with other females. They are not territorial. They are, perhaps, female mimics (which is why they are found swimming in group with other females). Terminal phase males are territorial and have a distinctively bright coloration. Individuals are born as males or females, but if they are born males, they are not born as terminal phase males. Females and initial phase males can become terminal phase males. Usually, the most dominant female or initial phase male replaces any terminal phase male when those males die or abandon the group. Bidirectional Sex Changers: where an organism has female and male reproductive organs, but act as either female or male during different stages in life.[12] Example: Lythrypnus dalli (Family Lythrypnus) are a group of coral reef fish in which bidirectional sex change occurs. Once a social hierarchy is established a fish changes sex according to its social status, regardless of the initial sex, based on a simple principle: if the fish expresses subordinate behavior then it changes its sex to female, and if the fish expresses dominant or not subordinate behavior then the fish changes its sex to male.[16] Dichogamy can have both conservation-related implications for humans, as mentioned above, as well as economic implications. For instance, groupers are favoured fish for eating in many Asian countries and are often aquacultured. Since the adults take several years to change from female to male, the broodstock are extremely valuable individuals. Earthworms are simultaneous hermaphrodites, having both male and female reproductive organs. A simultaneous (or synchronous) hermaphrodite (or homogamous) is an adult organism that has both male and female sexual organs at the same time.[12] Self-fertilization often occurs. Reproductive system of gastropods: Pulmonate land snails and land slugs are perhaps the best-known kind of simultaneous hermaphrodite, and are the most widespread of terrestrial animals possessing this sexual polymorphism. Sexual material is exchanged between both animals via spermatophore, which can then be stored in the spermatheca. After exchange of spermatozoa, both animals will lay fertilized eggs after a period of gestation; then the eggs will proceed to hatch after a development period. Snails typically reproduce in early spring and late autumn. Banana slugs are one example of a hermaphroditic gastropod. Mating with a partner is more desirable biologically, as the genetic material of the resultant offspring is varied, but if mating with a partner is not possible, self-fertilization is practiced. The male sexual organ of an adult banana slug is quite large in proportion to its size, as well as compared to the female organ. It is possible for banana slugs, while mating, to become stuck together. If a substantial amount of wiggling fails to separate them, the male organ will be bitten off (using the slug's radula), see apophallation. If a banana slug has lost its male sexual organ, it can still mate as a female, making its hermaphroditic quality a valuable adaptation. The species of colourful sea slugs Goniobranchus reticulatus is hermaphroditic, with both male and female organs active at the same time during copulation. After mating, the external portion of the penis detaches, but is able to regrow within 24 hours.[17][18] Hamlets, unlike other fish, seem quite at ease mating in front of divers, allowing observations in the wild to occur readily. They do not practice self-fertilization, but when they find a mate, the pair takes turns between which one acts as the male and which acts as the female through multiple matings, usually over the course of several nights. Earthworms are another example of a simultaneous hermaphrodite. Although they possess ovaries and testes, they have a protective mechanism against self-fertilization. Sexual reproduction occurs when two worms meet and exchange gametes, copulating on damp nights during warm seasons. Fertilized eggs are protected by a cocoon, which is buried on or near the surface of the ground. The free-living hermaphroditic nematode Caenorhabditis elegans reproduces primarily by self-fertilization, but infrequent out-crossing events occur at a rate of approximately 1%.[19] The mangrove killifish (Kryptolebias marmoratus) is a species of fish that lives along the east coast of North, Central and South America. These fish are simultaneous hermaphrodites. K. marmoratus produces eggs and sperm by meiosis and routinely reproduces by self-fertilization. Each individual hermaphrodite normally fertilizes itself when an egg and sperm produced by an internal organ unite inside the fish's body.[20] Pseudohermaphroditism[edit] Main article: Pseudohermaphroditism When spotted hyenas were first discovered by explorers, they were thought to be hermaphrodites. Early observations of spotted hyenas in the wild led researchers to believe that all spotted hyenas, male and female, were born with what appeared to be a penis. The apparent penis in female spotted hyenas is in fact an enlarged clitoris, which contains an external birth canal.[21][22] It can be difficult to determine the sex of wild spotted hyenas until sexual maturity, when they may become pregnant. When a female spotted hyena gives birth, they pass the cub through the cervix internally, but then pass it out through the elongated clitoris.[23] Humans[edit]
1860 photograph by Nadar of an intersex person displaying genitalia, one of a nine-part series. The series may be the earliest medical photographic documentation of intersex.[25] Hermaphrodite is used in older literature to describe any person whose physical characteristics do not neatly fit male or female classifications, but some people advocate to replace the term with intersex.[26][27] Intersex describes a wide variety of combinations of what are considered male and female biology. Intersex biology may include, for example, ambiguous-looking external genitalia, karyotypes that include mixed XX and XY chromosome pairs (46XX/46XY, 46XX/47XXY or 45X/XY mosaic). Clinically, medicine currently describes intersex people as having disorders of sex development, a term vigorously contested.[28][29] This is particularly because of a relationship between medical terminology and medical intervention.[30] Intersex civil society organizations, and many human rights institutions,[31][32] have criticized medical interventions designed to make intersex bodies more typically male or female. Some people who are intersex, such as some of those with androgen insensitivity syndrome, outwardly appear completely female or male, frequently without realizing they are intersex. Other kinds of intersex conditions are identified immediately at birth because those with the condition have a sexual organ larger than a clitoris and smaller than a penis. Some humans were historically termed true hermaphrodites if their gonadal tissue contained both testicular and ovarian tissue, or pseudohermaphrodites if their external appearance (phenotype) differed from sex expected from internal gonads. This language has fallen out of favor due to misconceptions and pejorative connotations associated with the terms,[33] and also a shift to nomenclature based on genetics. Intersex is in some caused by unusual sex hormones; the unusual hormones may be caused by an atypical set of sex chromosomes. One possible pathophysiologic explanation of intersex in humans is a parthenogenetic division of a haploid ovum into two haploid ova. Upon fertilization of the two ova by two sperm cells (one carrying an X chromosome and the other carrying a Y chromosome), the two fertilized ova are then fused together resulting in a person having dual genitalial, gonadal (ovotestes) and genetic sex. Another common cause of being intersex is the crossing over of the SRY from the Y chromosome to the X chromosome during meiosis. The SRY is then activated in only certain areas, causing development of testes in some areas by beginning a series of events starting with the upregulation of SOX9, and in other areas not being active (causing the growth of ovarian tissues). Thus, testicular and ovarian tissues will both be present in the same individual.[34] Fetuses before sexual differentiation are sometimes described as female by doctors explaining the process.[35] This is technically not true. Before this stage, humans are simply undifferentiated and possess a Müllerian duct, a Wolffian duct, and a genital tubercle. Botany[edit]
Main article: Sexual reproduction in plants Hermaphrodite is used in botany to describe a flower that has both staminate (male, pollen-producing) and carpellate (female, ovule-producing) parts. This condition is seen in many common garden plants. A closer analogy to hermaphroditism in botany is the presence of separate male and female flowers on the same individual—such plants are called monoecious. Monoecy is especially common in conifers, but occurs in only about 7% of angiosperm species.[36] The condition also occurs in some algae.[37] In addition, some plants can change their sex throughout their lifetime. This process is called Sequential hermaphroditism. In fiction[edit] Hermaphroditic life forms in fiction include the Hutts in Star Wars (as elaborated in spin-off novels), Hermats in Peter David's Star Trek: New Frontier series, and Asari in the Mass Effect game. The Trill symbionts in Star Trek are also notable as a species that melds with hosts of either sex It is my belief that we started from an Hermaphrodite organism and then evolved into a two gender species. I believe the 2 genders had and still do have vainity and genetic purification personality problems and it led to the lack of comprehension and respect for the Hermaphrodite gender. I believe we have scientifically failed Hermaphrodites to get them to live as they are and to keep both organs functioning.
Time zero Positive thought emerges and negative thought appears a battle begins and an explosion occurs the universe begins to form

Grand Creator Hermata started creation in its simplist form and will always be working towards improving it. Some creations have an Origin that resulted in them starting from one organism and then multiplying. In humans Grand Creator Hermata took several steps to guide Evolution


Section 1: Supreme Alphas Birth Date the Birth of Existence 

Alph

Section 2: Mighty Youth Diety Family Tree Grand Creators Hermatta and Posyleon

Grand Architects ( Portions of Hermatta and Posyleon ) Blascymund ( Hermatta Portion) Darnurnyte (Hermatta Portion) Kinlovsul (Hermatta Portion Name choosen by Posyleon-Kind, Loving, Soul) Strenpressidom ( Hermatta Portion) Asyunga ( Posyleon portion Name Choosen by Hermatta- A Special Yunīverisitīwochi u neva gave away) Olatyion ( Posyleon Portion) Philoscytis ( Posyleon Portion) Eternbustion (Posyleon Portion) Souljas of Eternity ( Portions of Hermatta and Posyleon ) Ultimate Negatives The Negative remains of Hermatta and Posyleon started this family line
Subtracatta Posifityz Submissive Negatives Eternal Children + Da Positives Hermatta's and Posyleon's Line Generation 1

Hermion- A hermorphadite Diety A good child at first but Feels entitled to take over the throne and rulership of the multiverse. Hermaya- A Hermorphadite Diety tries to stop Hermion from Killing Hermatta and Posyleon and is the first death of the Eternal children. Hermatta and Posyleon were able to restore the soul but it took a long time to get Hermaya back to original form. Jamoja- A Hermophadite Diety That loves Trees, Bushes, grass, weeds, Flowers, in all their aspects this Diety Only takes forms that encompas these. Kawiya A Hermorphadite Diety That Loves the Oceans and Only takes Aquatic and Aquanoid forms. Likes Palurie but think Palurie loves another so Kawiya takes a vow of chasity. Palurie and Puegadeus are close and Puegadeus tries to lure Palurie away from Kawiya. Kawiya and Palurie have a chance encounter and the relationship begins to blossom. Puegadeus begins to lie to Kawiya about Palurie and as Puegadeus is about to propose Palurie stumbles upon them an argument ensues and all is revealed to Kawiya when Puegadeus catches on that Kawiya knows he attackes Palurie and before Puegadeus is killed Posyleon separates them and when Puegadeus future revealed he would not stop he was sentenced to the Posyell dimension.

Philoscytis (Posyleon Portion & Strenpressidom (Hermatta Portion) Palurie -A Hermaphdite deity Has a love for the moons and animal creatures specifically the canine creatures and insects, Palurie falls in love with the original wolf and mantis creatures and Palurie changes Hermas (His and Hers) to combine both creatures. Palurie helps Jamoja create plant and animal environments. Puegadeus A Hermophadite deity Who loves the Ocean, Land, and creatures. Puegadeus always felt Hermop (He and She) was the most talented and deserving to rule. ( Fell in love with Kawiya and was almost killed by Palurie before being banished to another dimension) Chavedani- A Hermophadite Deity – Has a love and talent for solving problems and finding solutions to help.( loved Puegadeus and keeps trying to get to the other dimension to be with Heirm (him and her) but no one trusts that) Olatyion ( Posyleon Portion) Blascymund ( Hermatta Portion) Rhoquil- A Hermaphodite deity has a special knack for rehabilitation Zeenado Jyluk(Pink Gay fancydressing HOD, Extremely inventive and resourceful Seraqu's marital mate) Nu – (What the Eygptains foolishly thought was Personification of the formless, watery disorder from which the world emerged at creation and a member of the Ogdoad Since they were to ignorant they were blind to the true paths.
Asyunga ( Posyleon portion) and Kinlovsul ( Hermatta Portion) Seraqu(Grey HOD, Jyluk's marital mate), Dionus- A Hermaphodite deity Dragardino HOD

Darnurnyte (Hermatta Portion) and Eternbustion (Posyleon Portion) Drygunia HOD Kaijuni

Generation 2 These first born gods would then give rise to further Protogenoi; Nyx (Night), Erebus (Darkness), Ouranos (Sky), Pontus (Sea), The Ourea (Mountains), Aether (Light) and Hemera (Day) Generation 3 THE TITANS The next generation of Greek gods and goddesses were the offspring of Ouranos and Gaia.

Gaia would give birth to six sons and six daughters. The six male Titans being Cronus, Iapetus, Oceanus, Hyperion, Crius and Coeus, and the female Titanides named  Rhea, Themis, Tethys, Theia, Mnemosyne and Phoebe.

Gaia would incite the Titans to rise up against their father, and Cronus would ultimately take up a sickle to castrate Ouranos, and destroy much of the god's powers. Cronus would take up the position of supreme deity, and the rule of the Titans would then become known as the Golden Age of Greek mythology. Chaos Gaia Goijura Natti Eon Dragudna Yamir Heh – Personification of infinity and a member of the Ogdoad[54] Kek – The god of Chaos and Darkness, as well as being the concept of primordial darkness. Kek's female form is known as Kauket.

Generation 4 Drygudia Olorun Odudua -Yoruba Earth Goddess Ra (Re) – The foremost Egyptian sun god, involved in creation and the afterlife. Mythological ruler of the gods, father of every Egyptian king, and the patron god of Heliopolis.[56] Atum – A creator god and solar deity, first god of the Ennead[8]

Brahma Lakshmi Vishnu Saraswati Farbauti Laufey Aegir Ran Kaija Jade Emperor Jade Empress Buri Bestla Ibu Jagat Abati Gazi
Aganju Yoruba Spirit of Volcanoes
Elusu Yoruba Goddess of Water
Osanyin Yoruba God of Plants
Oshun Yoruba Goddess of Love
Orunmila Yoruba God of Wisdom
Generation 5
Ve Vili Odin
Frigg was regarded as the Queen of the Æsir and the goddess of the sky. Moreover, with her special status as the spouse of Odin, the deity, with her power of foreknowledge, was also frequently associated with fertility, household, motherhood, marriage, and even domestic matters. In essence, of all the Norse gods, it was the mythic aspects of Frigg that were mostly related to the perceived bliss of family life. On the other hand, Frigg’s love for family and motherly protectiveness also leads to the tragic episode of her favored child Balder’s death (discussed later). Interestingly enough, in spite of Frigg’s eminence in later Norse mythology (during the Viking period), her Old Germanic version is steeped in mystery – a factor that is still debated in the academic world. 
Tyr Osiris – god of death and resurrection who rules the underworld and enlivens vegetation, the sun god, and deceased souls[22] Chronos and Gaia Line Zeus Hera Poseidon Hades
God Yaweh Jah Eternal Empress Ogun Yoruba God of Weapons Obatala Yoruba God of Purity Oshunmare Yoruba Spirit of Rainbows Oya Yoruba Goddess of Many Things Shango Yoruba God of Storms Heimdallr was once considered to be the father of humankind, as vaguely mentioned in the Old Norse poem Völuspá. Other scholars have hypothesized that Heimdall as a figurehead was historically perceived by the Norse tribes as being responsible for creating the hierarchy and classes among men. In any case, reverting to mythology, Heimdall also plays an important role in the impending Ragnarok, where he will sound the dire call of Gjallarhorn to signal the arrival of the giants and monsters. And in the consequent confrontations, Loki and Heimdall are foretold to slay one another. hide Anubis/Anput – The god/goddess of embalming and protector of the dead[53]
[55] Karima Ahuya Wayze Myz
Generation 6 Aje Shaluga Yoruba God of Wealth Babalú Ayé Yoruba God of Healing Bayani Yoruba Goddess Dada Yoruba God of Abundance Egungun-oya Yoruba Goddess of Prophecy Elegua Yoruba Trickster God Eshu Yoruba Trickster God Hare Yoruba Trickster God Jakuta Yoruba God of Lightning Morimi Yoruba Goddess of Fire Ochosi Yoruba God of Hunting Oduduwa Yoruba Hero God Oko Yoruba God of Farming Olokun Yoruba God of the Sea
Onile Yoruba Goddess of Blacksmithing The Orishas Yoruba Spirits of Many Things Sopona Yoruba God of Illness and Disease Yansan Yoruba Goddess of the Wind Yemaya Yoruba Goddess of Childbirth The Abiku Yoruba Demons Oshe Yoruba information of Storms Hestia, Demeter, , Aphrodite, Hermes, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Athena, Hephaestus Ganesha Shiva Bragi (which roughly translates to ‘Poet’ in Old Norse), often considered as the skaldic god of poetry in Norse mythology, pertains to a unique mythical character who possibly shared traits with the historical 9th-century bard Bragi Boddason, who himself might have served in the courts of Ragnar Lodbrok and Björn at Hauge. In any case, when it came to legends, the god Bragi was perceived as the bard of Valhalla, the magnificent hall of Odin where all the fallen heroes and warriors are gathered for the ultimate ‘showdown’ at Ragnarok. To that end, Bragi was hailed as the skillful poet-god who sang and delighted the hordes of the Einherjar (warriors who died in battles and were brought to Odin’s majestic hall by the Valkyries) Idun (or Iðunn in Old Norse, meaning ‘Rejuvenating One’) belonged to the Aesir tribe of Norse gods, and as such, was considered as the Norse goddess of eternal youthfulness. This aspect was represented by her strikingly exuberant long golden hair. In the mythical narrative, she is also mentioned as being the wife of Bragi Loki is regarded as the trickster among the Norse gods, who as a jötunn, being the son of giant Farbauti and giantess (or goddess) Laufey, also possesses the power to shapeshift. Essentially, he is projected as an entity who is not entirely evil in his whimsical purposes, and yet particularly scheming in his cruel actions – many of which lead to misfortunes and even tragedies (like the accidental death of Balder
Thor Sif Balder Vidar-In Gylfaginning (first part of Poetic Edda), Vidar is mentioned to wear a thick shoe (like Thor) which is constantly mended by the god himself. That is because the shoe would keep Vidar relatively safe as he plunges his foot down Fenrir’s throat to smash the monster’s heart at the Ragnarok (although Völuspá mentions how Vidar would slay Fenrir by thrusting his sword into the wolf’s heart). To that end, there might have been a tradition among the Norse shoemakers to keep (or dedicate) little scraps of leather from the trimmings of their shoes to aid the Silent God of Vengeance. 
Dragud

Tatenen – Personification of the first mound of earth to emerge from chaos in ancient Egyptian creation myths[57] Aten – Sun disk deity who became the focus of the monolatrous or monotheistic Atenist belief system in the reign of Akhenaten[7]
Generation 7 hide Aker – A god of the earth and the horizon[3] Amun – A creator god, patron deity of the city of Thebes, and the preeminent deity in Egypt during the New Kingdom[4] Anhur – A god of war and hunting[5][6] Bennu – A solar and creator deity, depicted as a bird[9] Geb – An earth god and member of the Ennead[10] Hapi – Personification of the Nile flood[11] Horus – A major god, usually shown as a falcon or as a human child, linked with the sky, the sun, kingship, protection, and healing. Often said to be the son of Osiris and Isis.[12] Khepri – A solar creator god, often treated as the morning form of Ra and represented by a scarab beetle[13] Khnum (Khnemu) – A ram god, the patron deity of Elephantine, who was said to control the Nile flood and give life to gods and humans[14] Khonsu – A moon god, son of Amun and Mut[15] Maahes – A lion god, son of Bastet[16] Montu – A god of war and the sun, worshipped at Thebes[17] Nefertum – God of the lotus blossom from which the sun god rose at the beginning of time. Son of Ptah and Sekhmet.[18] Nemty – Falcon god, worshipped in Middle Egypt,[19] who appears in myth as a ferryman for greater gods[20] Neper – A god of grain[21] Ptah – A creator deity and god of craftsmen, the patron god of Memphis[23] Set – An ambivalent god, characterized by violence, chaos, and strength, connected with the desert. Mythological murderer of Osiris and enemy of Horus, but also a supporter of the king.[24] Shu – Embodiment of wind or air, a member of the Ennead[25] Sobek – Crocodile god, worshipped in the Faiyum and at Kom Ombo[26] Sopdu – A god of the sky and of Egypt's eastern border regions[27] Thoth – A moon god, and a god of writing and scribes, and patron deity of Hermopolis[28] Wadj-wer – Personification of the Mediterranean sea or lakes of the Nile Delta[29] Female[edit] hide Amunet – Female counterpart of Amun and a member of the Ogdoad[3] Anuket – A goddess of Egypt's southern frontier regions, particularly the lower cataracts of the Nile[30] Bastet – Goddess represented as a cat or lioness, patroness of the city of Bubastis, linked with protection from evil[31] Bat – Cow goddess from early in Egyptian history, eventually absorbed by Hathor[32] Hathor – One of the most important goddesses, linked with the sky, the sun, sexuality and motherhood, music and dance, foreign lands and goods, and the afterlife. One of many forms of the Eye of Ra.[33] Heqet – Frog goddess said to protect women in childbirth[34] Hesat – A maternal cow goddess[35] Imentet – An afterlife goddess closely linked with Isis and Hathor[36] Isis – Wife of Osiris and mother of Horus, linked with funerary rites, motherhood, protection, and magic. She became a major deity in Greek and Roman religion.[37] Maat – Goddess who personified truth, justice, and order[38] Menhit – A lioness goddess[39] Mut – Consort of Amun, worshipped at Thebes[40] Neith – A creator and hunter goddess, patron of the city of Sais in Lower Egypt[41] Nekhbet (Nekhebit) – A vulture goddess, the tutelary deity of Upper Egypt[42] Nephthys (Neb-t kha-t) – A member of the Ennead, the consort of Set, who mourned Osiris alongside Isis[43] Nepit – A goddess of grain, female counterpart of Neper[44] Nut – A sky goddess, a member of the Ennead[45] Pakhet – A lioness goddess mainly worshipped in the area around Beni Hasan[46] Renenutet – An agricultural goddess[47] Satet – A goddess of Egypt's southern frontier regions[48] Sekhmet – A lioness goddess, both destructive and violent and capable of warding off disease, protector of the pharaohs who led them in war, the consort of Ptah and one of many forms of the Eye of Ra.[49] Tefnut – Goddess of moisture and a member of the Ennead[50] Wadjet (Uatchit) – A cobra goddess, the tutelary deity of Lower Egypt[51] Wosret – A goddess of Thebes[52] The Rigveda speaks of Thirty-three gods called the Trayastrinshata ('Three plus thirty'). They consists of the 12 Adityas, the 8 Vasus, the 11 Rudras and the 2 Ashvins. Indra also called Śakra, lord of the gods, is the first of the 33 followed by Agni. Some of these brother gods were invoked in pairs such as Indra-Agni, Mitra-Varuna and Soma-Rudra. Adityas[edit] Mitra, the patron god of oaths and of friendship, Varuna, the patron god of water and the oceans, Śakra, also called Indra, the king of gods, and the god of rains Dakṣa, Aṃśa, Aryaman, Bhaga, god of wealth Vivasvat, also called Ravi or Savitṛ, Tvāṣṭṛ, the smith among the gods, Pūsan, patron god of travellers and herdsmen, god of roads, Dhāt, god of health and magic, also called Dhūti Vamana Rudras[edit] The Ramayana tells they are eleven of the 33 children of the sage Kashyapa and his wife Aditi, along with the 12 Adityas, 8 Vasus and 2 Ashvins, constituting the Thirty-three gods.[7] The Vamana Purana describes the Rudras as the sons of Kashyapa and Aditi.[8] The Matsya Purana notes that Surabhi – the mother of all cows and the "cow of plenty" – was the consort of Brahma and their union produced the eleven Rudras. Here they are named: Nirriti, Shambhu, Aparajita Mrigavyadha, Kapardi, Dahana, Khara, Ahirabradhya, Kapali, Pingala and Senani.[9] Brahma allotted to the Rudras the eleven positions of the heart and the five sensory organs, the five organs of action and the mind.[8][10] Vasus[edit] Assistants of Indra and of Vishnu Agni the "Fire" god, also called Anala or "living", Varuna the "Water" god, also called Antarikṣa the "Atmosphere" or "Space" god, Vāyu the "Wind", the air god, also called Anila ("wind") Dyauṣ the "Sky" god, also called Dyeus and Prabhāsa or the "shining dawn" Pṛthivī the "Earth" god, also called Dharā or "support" Sūrya the "Sun" god, also called Pratyūsha, ("break of dawn", but often used to mean simply "light"), the Saura sectary worshipped Sūrya as their chief deity. Soma the "Moon" god, also called Chandra Samudra the "Sea" god, also called as "Sagar" Ashvins[edit] The Ashvins (also called the Nāsatyas) were twin gods. Nasatya is also the name of one twin, while the other is called Dasra.


Generation 8
Fenrir the Wolf,  Jörmungandr the Serpent  Hel, who was the daughter of Loki and the giant Angrboda Generation 9
Generation 10
Flamianna Mageno
Ultimate Subtracavoids (The Evil remains of Hermatta and Posyleon that they thought they destroyed started this family line)
Subtracatta Posifityz
Offspring
Generation 1 Omega Dragonosaur Blud Evispell




Section 2: Intelligent Design

Section 3:The Dimensions and the Multiverse
The Dimensions
What is a Dimension? – a Dimension is a Reality,Realm or plane of Existence
What is The Interdimensional hypothesis?
The interdimensional hypothesis(IDHorIH), is an idea advanced by Ufologists such as Jacques Vallée that says unidentified flying objects (UFOs) and related events involve visitations from other "realities" or "dimensions" that coexist separately alongside our own.
The Heavens Dimension 1 contains the Heavens of Hermata and the creators children. This is the Original Dimension that spawned the other 4 Dimension. It can be said that Time 0 originated here in Dimension 1 when Grand Creator Hermata the first Diety came into Existence.

Dimension 1 is the birthplace of the Original Dieties and where their separate Heavens Reside after multiple first generation creations turned on the Dieties the creations were banned from this Dimension and the other Dimensions were created.

Dimension 2 is the Mythical Realms where the messengers of the Dieties Reside and live out their existence.

Dimension 3: The Multiverse is the 3^rd Dimension and it is where creations were toned down to prove moral theories amongst the dieties.In the Dimensions the Mythical realms and The Trail Domains have Daughter Universes.
The Multiverse
What is the Multiverse Theory? In science the Multiverse Theory states that there may be multiple or even an infinite number of universes that together comprise everything that exists: the entirety of space, time, matter, and energy as well as the physical laws and constants that describe them.
There are at least five theories stating why a multiverse is possible! The 5 threories are; 1. Infinite universes. 2. Bubble universes. 3. Daughter universes. 4. Mathematical universes. 5. Parallel universes.
1. Infinite universes.
2. Bubble universes.
3. Daughter universes. The Daughter universes Theory. Or perhaps multiple universes can follow the theory of quantum mechanics, how subatomic particles behave, as part of the "daughter universe" theory. If you follow the laws of probability, it suggests that for every outcome that could come from one of your decisions, there would be a range of universes — each of which saw one outcome come to be. So in one universe, you took that job to Africa. In another, perhaps you were on your way and your plane landed somewhere different, and you decided to stay. And so on.
4. Mathematical universes.
5. Parallel universes.
What is a Universe? A single Universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. A single Universe is a big, open place.

What is a Galaxy? A galaxy is a huge collection of gas, dust, and billions of stars and their solar systems. A galaxy is held together by gravity. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, also has a supermassive black hole in the middle. Some galaxies are spiral-shaped like ours. They have curved arms that make it look like a pinwheel. Other galaxies are smooth and oval shaped. They’re called elliptical galaxies. And there are also galaxies that aren’t spirals or ovals. They have irregular shapes and look like blobs. The light that we see from each of these galaxies comes from the stars inside it. There are an estimated 100 billion galaxies in the universe, but this number is likely to increase to about 200 billion as telescope technology in space improves .
Dimension 4 Dimension 4 is Limbo this is where the good athiest and those that are undicided upon go. Limbo is for those with a 2^nd chance at redemption.
Dimension 5 is Hell was created by the dieties to send those who are pure evil or do great acts of evil, until they are redeemed or for eternity.

Section 4: Mighty Youth Section 5:The Great Betrayl Section 6: The War Section 7:Aftermath Section 8: Revolution Section 9: The Challenge Section 10: Unforgiving Crisis Section 11: Restoration Section 12: The Peace Process Section 13: Divine Council Section 14: Restoration

Section 15: Research
According to research, the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old
THE ORIGIN OF THINGS has always been a central concern for humanity; the origin of the stones, the animals, the plants, the planets, the stars and we ourselves. Yet the most fundamental origin of them all would seem to be the origin of the universe as a whole – of everything that exists, without which there could be none of the creatures and things mentioned above, including ourselves. Perhaps that is why the existence of the universe, its origin and nature, has been a subject of explanation in almost all civilizations and cultures. In fact, every culture known to anthropology has had a cosmogony – a history of how the world began and continues, of how mankind was created and of what the dieties expect of us. The understanding these civilizations had of the universe is very different to what science teaches us today. However, the absence of a cosmology in these societies, of some explanation for the world in which we live, would be just as unthinkable as the absence of language itself

The Heliocentric Model The idea that the Sun is at the centre of the universe and that the Earth revolves around it, known as the heliocentric theory, was first proposed by Aristarchus of Samos (320 -350 BC, Greek mathematician and astronomer), who arrived at the notion based on his estimates of the sizes and distances of the Sun and the Moon. He concluded that the Earth revolves around the Sun and that the stars compose a fixed and very distant sphere. His theory attracted little attention, mainly because it contradicted the geocentric theory of Aristotle, then held in the highest prestige, and because the very idea of the Earth moving about was not particularly appealing.
About two thousand years later, in 1510, Copernicus (Nicolaus Copernicus, 1473 -1543, Polish astronomer) set down his own heliocentric model in the work Commentariolus, which circulated anonymously; Copernicus seemed to have foreseen the furore the theory would provoke and only allowed it to be published after his death. The work was brought out openly for the first time in 1543 under the title De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelesti, and carried a dedication to Pope Paul III.
After the publication of Copernicus’ theory, however, certain technological and scientific advances rendered it clearly superior to the Ptolemaic system. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601, a Danish astronomer) played an important role in advancing instrument-based techniques for making precise measurements with the naked eye, as refracting glasses and telescopes had not yet been invented. These measurements were roughly ten times more precise than earlier calculations. In 1597 Brahe moved to Prague, where he hired Johannes Kepler (1571-1630, German mathematician and astronomer) as his assistant. Later, Kepler was to use Tycho’s measurements to establish his laws of planetary motion. These laws showed that the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus. With this realization, theoretical calculations and measurements acquired much greater congruity than under the older system.

If for no other reason, the precision and the economy this afforded would have proved so important on long sea voyages that the laws would have imposed themselves for practical reasons alone. In developing the telescope, Galileo created an instrument of vital importance to astronomical research, as it lends extraordinary powers of magnification to the human eye. When he trained his telescope at the Sun, he discovered sunspots; when he focused on Jupiter, he discovered its first four moons; turning to the Milky Way, he revealed that it was composed of myriad stars. The discovery of the galaxy It was precisely with the development of optical, mechanical and photographic techniques that the distances of the nearest stars could finally be determined, thus dispelling the notion of a sphere of fixed stars. With stellar distances now measured – and understood to be incredibly long – the interpretation gradually began to take hold that the stars and the Sun were objects of the same nature. Each star therefore had the “right”, in principle, to host a planetary system
We tend to think of our universe in terms of three-dimensional space; we can walk forwards, sideways and even jump up and down. To these we can add a further dimension: time. These four dimensions constitute the spacetime universe in which we live, but we could imagine other universes. From a mathematical perspective, we can, for example, imagine various two-dimensional universes; the surface of a ball is a two-dimensional entity, as is the surface of a table. Imagine the surface of a child’s balloon as a two-dimensional universe. We can draw two-dimensional galaxies on that surface, populated by two-dimensional ants. Some of these ants might be astronomers whose task it is to observe the other galaxies and measure their distances and speeds. Let’s imagine for an instant that someone blows into the balloon and makes it expand. What will the astronomer-ant see? Basically, he will see that the galaxies closest to him recede slowly while those more distant shuttle away at a faster speed. This ant will have discovered Hubble’s Law. If we imagine the opposite - that instead of expanding, the balloon begins to deflate-, what the ant will see is all of the galaxies edging closer to each other – the opposite of Hubble’s Law. What the law proves, therefore, is that our universe is in expansion! In other words, it will be larger in the future and it was smaller in the past. The further back in the past, the smaller the universe. If we follow the logic through, we can imagine a balloon so small that it shrinks to a mere
http://www.scielo.br/pdf/ea/v20n58/en_20.pdf
















Chapter 2: Divine Gardens
Chapter 2: Divine Gardens 1: Environmental Respect 2: Laws of the garden 3: Competitive Disaster 4: Unity 5: Many sins 6: Fall from grace 7: Banishments The man said should not the most powerful rule the woman said well you must be all knowing to be the ruler
and Father Time said to the people in the gardens there are other Gods some more powerful than I, I am not the God of mass quantity or breeding the perfect species neither am I all knowing I learn as I learn but I am here to spread Justice, peace and Love















































Chapter 3: Fallen Empire


Along time ago in a land far away their lived a tribe of people called the Kaleidians their empire was vast and united a all for one, one for all type of society. The state they lived in was named Kaleidopia It was ruled by a council of 3; Jacob A priest, Fetuh a knight, Deandra an empress,. Their was a mixture of colors and beliefs as many travled to visit the empire because of its riches. The main belief system called for equality of all and respect for other religions. Justice ruled the empire and fairness was expected. Some consider Kaleidopia to be the most socially just society to have ever existed. On the 12^th of July 899 BC the Kaleidians welcomed the Raviers into their empire. The Raviers were ruled by Queens and the new Queen Esmerelda was visting towns in search of a husband. The Queen meets with the council. Her eyes fell on Jacob. She ignored the fact that he was married to an inventor named Wesley. She invited Jacob who was unaware to come visit her empire so that he can see how to help. Jacob left and went to visit Ravine. When he arrived the Queen told him “Renounce Wesley the two of you can bare no offspring there is no fruit to bare from your efforts.” Jacob replied “Never not one of you understand what love is and I do I will never forsake my husband I am a man of faith and loyal to my oaths.” Her brother Edwin screams “Kill the nasty bastard”They cut the head off of Priest Jacobs. Time went by and Wesley began to worry as he did not even receive a letter which was unusual. Fetuh and Deandra gather an army and head to the Ravine. The remaining council memebers and their army arrive at the gates of Ravine. Queen Esmerelda greets them and shouts “ Your Kind has no place in this World, he would choose a man over me, the sickness of your lot must be cleansed from the Earth.” Deandra leads the charge and they over run Ravine recovering Jacobs body and head. They leave and travel home to bury Jacob. Edwin survived the attack and he begins to go to other Empires claiming that the Kaleidians were trying to conquor the world and enforce their lifestyle on every one. The other Empires panic and begin to join forces with Edwin. Fetuh Kisses his wife before he goes to address his army “I believe we are a special people with faith in the rights of our fellow human beings, we are outnumbered and always will be may they feel our sting as they attack our hive.” Deandra is being dressed by her wife Sheva, “ If this be the last moment I see your beautiful face I want you to know I love you eternally so may fate always bring me to you” She joins Fetuh and they head to the gates. The Battle lasts 5 years before Fetuh is captured he is taken to the Emperors and commanded to lead Kaleidopia as a sole king he must reject his religion and swear loyalty. Fetuh stands proud “ I am loyal, loyal to Kaleidopia as I see nothing but brothers and sisters that breath and bleed like me” Fetuh is hanged. In just two more years the walls fall and Kaleidopia is burnt to the ground.













Chapter 4: Morals and Ethics Section 1: Morals Moral Character Defined by Damon (1988) identified six ways that social scientists have defined morality: (1) an evaluative orientation that distinguishes good and bad and prescribes good; (2) a sense of obligation toward standards of a social collective; (3) a sense of responsibility for acting out of concern for others; (4) a concern for the rights of others; (5) a commitment to honesty in interpersonal relationships; and (6) a state of mind that causes negative emotional reactions to immoral acts. This categorical scheme may not accommodate all useful definitions, particularly the more substantive definitions offered by philosophers and theologians.
While most researchers support a multidimensional aspect to moral character, especially Lickona’s (1991) advocacy of cognitive, affective, and behavioral components, several authors support additional components. For example, Narvaez and Rest (1995) suggest that the skills of moral and character development should be considered in terms of four psychological components. They say that the focus should be on the internal processes and behavioral skills that are required for moral behavior and propose that sensitivity, judgment, and motivation emerge from the interaction of cognitive and affective processes. 1. Ethical Sensitivity—the perception of moral and social situations, including the ability to consider possible actions and their repercussions in terms of the people involved; 2. Ethical Judgment—the consideration of possible alternative actions and the rationale for selecting one or more as best; 3. Ethical Motivation—the selection of moral values most relevant in the situation and the commitment to act on that selection; 4. Ethical Action—the ego strength combined with the psychological and social skills necessary to carry out the selected alternative. For Huitt (2000), moral character incorporates the underlying qualities of a person’s moral or ethical knowledge, reasoning, values, and commitments that are routinely displayed in behavior. Character is associated with the quality of one’s life, especially in terms of moral and ethical decisions and actions. As described in framework for developing the whole person, Huitt (2004) placed moral character is one of three core elements that are dynamically related to both the personal and social aspects of one’s life. That is, development in each of the ten identified domains and the other core elements of spiritual development and personal style influence the development of one’s moral character and this development, in turn, influences development in the ten domains and the other core elements. Berkowitz (2002) identified seven psychological components of the “moral anatomy,” and urged scientists and educators to begin reconstructing the “complete moral person.” 1. Moral behavior (prosocial, sharing, donating to charity, telling the truth) 2. Moral values (believe in moral goods) 3. Moral emotion (guilt, empathy, compassion) 4. Moral reasoning (about right and wrong) 5. Moral identity (morality as an aspect self-image) 6. Moral personality (enduring tendency to act with honesty, altruism, responsibility 7. “Metamoral” characteristics meaning they make morality possible even though they are not inherently moral. Vessels’ (1998) divided cognition into moral knowing and moral reasoning. He addressed will or volition by examining the intersections between moral feeling and both thinking (empathy, motivation) and knowing (values, beliefs), and by defining moral behavior as intentional by definition. According to Vessels, the intersection of moral knowing, reasoning, feeling, and behaving yields conscience, which reflects one’s (a) past thoughts, feelings, and behavior, (b) one’s present thoughts and feelings, and (c) one’s view of the future in terms of MORAL AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT 4 feeling compelled to act morally. He agrees with the other researchers in that moral character includes both personal and social aspects, which he describes as personal and social integrity.

With respect to personal integrity, Vessels states that people with moral character are predisposed to: (1) show kindness and compassion with empathetic understanding; (2) show the courage to be honest and principled irrespective of circumstances; (3) acquire a wide range of abilities that enable them to independently resolve problems, analyze situations where moral values and principles may be in conflict, and adapt to change in a personally and socially constructive manner; and (4) display a high level of effort in their daily work, and a high level of commitment to individual and group goals and standards. With respect to social integrity, he states that people with moral character are predisposed to (1) show an interest-in and concern-for others in the spirit of friendship and brotherhood and to act on these concerns routinely, (2) perform as responsible and other-directed team members within families and other groups, and (3) view the preservation of social institutions and improvement of both self and community as civic duties.


Chapter 5: Persecution
Part A: Army of the Pink Triangle The pink triangle was used by the Nazis in concentration camps to identify and shame homosexuals. This symbol, which was used to label and shame, has been embraced by the gay community as a symbol of pride. However, in the 1930s & 1940s there was nothing celebratory about the pink triangle. Gays were forced to wear the pink triangle on their breast pockets in the concentration camps to identify them as homosexual to set them apart from other prisoners. Triangles of various colors were used to identify each category of "undesirable": yellow for Jews, brown of Gypsies, red for political prisoners, green for criminals, black for anti-socials, purple for Jehovah's Witnesses, blue for immigrants, and pink for homosexuals. The pink triangles were slightly larger than the other colored triangles so that guards could identify them from a distance. It is said that those who wore the pink triangles were singled out by the guards to receive the harshest treatment, and when the guards were finished with them, some of the other inmates would harm them as well. At the end of the war, when the concentration camps were finally liberated, virtually all of the prisoners were released except those who wore the pink triangle. Many of those with a pink triangle on their pocket were put back in prison and their nightmare continued. One of the groups that was targeted for extermination by the Nazis continues to be under attack to this day, not just verbally but physically, all over the world: homosexuals. The fact that gays were put in German concentration camps is not known by many. The stories of the survivors reveal an unimaginable cruelty and suffering. It is the same kind of senseless, irrational hatred that still haunts Gays, Jews, Blacks, and other minorities today. The Taliban in Afghanistan required non-Muslims to wear identifying badges on their clothing, just as the Nazis required their "undesirables" to wear identifying logos so long ago. History repeats itself. The list of systematic, deliberate and well-orchestrated exterminations is a long one. The Armenian Genocide of 1915 - 1918 in the Ottoman Turkish Empire, the Holocaust, the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, the ethnic cleansing of Bosnia and the Sudan, and numerous other genocidal campaigns are testament of the world's complacency. It seems the lessons of the Holocaust and the Pink Triangle have been lost on many. Because "those who forget history are doomed to repeat it" we continue to display the Pink Triangle atop Twin Peaks. It is important to keep alive the memory of the Holocaust victims and to remind everyone of the consequences of unchecked hatred. The Pink Triangle display is also intended as an instrument to initiate discourse about hate crimes. We want to help prevent others from experiencing the results of hatred that Matthew Shepard, Allen Schindler, Brandon Teena, and countless others have been subjected to. If we can help prevent additional crimes like those committed against them, we will have been successful in our attempt to inform the public.
https://www.thepinktriangle.com/history/symbol.html
Part B: Alan Turing
Alan Mathison Turing OBE FRS (/ˈtjʊərɪŋ/; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical biologist.[6] Turing was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer science, providing a formalisation of the concepts of algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, which can be considered a model of a general-purpose computer.[7][8][9] Turing is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.[10] Despite these accomplishments, he was never fully recognised in his home country during his lifetime, due to his homosexuality, which was then a crime in the UK. During the Second World War, Turing worked for the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park, Britain's codebreaking centre that produced Ultra intelligence. For a time he led Hut 8, the section that was responsible for German naval cryptanalysis. Here, he devised a number of techniques for speeding the breaking of German ciphers, including improvements to the pre-war Polish bombe method, an electromechanical machine that could find settings for the Enigma machine. Turing played a pivotal role in cracking intercepted coded messages that enabled the Allies to defeat the Nazis in many crucial engagements, including the Battle of the Atlantic, and in so doing helped win the war.[11][12] Counterfactual history is difficult with respect to the effect Ultra intelligence had on the length of the war,[13] but at the upper end it has been estimated that this work shortened the war in Europe by more than two years and saved over 14 million lives.[11] After the war, Turing worked at the National Physical Laboratory, where he designed the Automatic Computing Engine, which was one of the first designs for a stored-program computer. In 1948, Turing joined Max Newman's Computing Machine Laboratory at the Victoria University of Manchester, where he helped develop the Manchester computers[14] and became interested in mathematical biology. He wrote a paper on the chemical basis of morphogenesis[1] and predicted oscillating chemical reactionssuch as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, first observed in the 1960s. Turing was prosecuted in 1952 for homosexual acts; the Labouchere Amendment had mandated that "gross indecency" was a criminal offence in the UK. He accepted chemical castration treatment, with DES, as an alternative to prison. Turing died in 1954, 16 days before his 42nd birthday, from cyanide poisoning. An inquest determined his death as a suicide, but it has been noted that the known evidence is also consistent with accidental poisoning.[15] In 2009, following an Internet campaign, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown made an official public apology on behalf of the British government for "the appalling way he was treated". Queen Elizabeth II granted Turing a posthumous pardon in 2013.[16][17][18] The Alan Turing law is now an informal term for a 2017 law in the United Kingdom that retroactively pardoned men cautioned or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing

Part C: Josephine Baker
Josephine Baker Josephine Baker was a well-known entertainer of the Jazz Age and identified as bisexual. She was one of the most successful African-American performers in French history and used her platform as an entertainer to advocate for desegregation, refusing to perform in segregated venues and even speaking at the 1963 March on Washington. Baker also served as a spy for the French during World War II, passing along secrets she heard while performing for German soldiers. Josephine Baker (born Freda Josephine McDonald, naturalised French Joséphine Baker; 3 June 1906 – 12 April 1975) was an American-born French entertainer, activist, and French Resistance agent. Her career was centered primarily in Europe, mostly in her adopted France. During her early career she was renowned as a dancer, and was among the most celebrated performers to headline the revues of the Folies Bergère in Paris. Her performance in the revue Un vent de folie in 1927 caused a sensation in Paris. Her costume, consisting of only a girdle of artificial bananas, became her most iconic image and a symbol of the Jazz Ageand the 1920s.[citation needed] Baker was celebrated by artists and intellectuals of the era, who variously dubbed her the “Black Venus”, the "Black Pearl", the "Bronze Venus", and the "Creole Goddess". Born in St. Louis, Missouri, she renounced her U.S. citizenship and became a French national after her marriage to French industrialist Jean Lion in 1937.[2] She raised her children in France. "I have two loves, my country and Paris." the artist once said, and sang: «J'ai deux amours, mon pays et Paris».[3] Baker was the first African-American to star in a major motion picture, the 1927 silent film Siren of the Tropics, directed by Mario Nalpas and Henri Étiévant.[4] Baker refused to perform for segregated audiences in the United States and is noted for her contributions to the Civil Rights Movement. In 1968 she was offered unofficial leadership in the movement in the United States by Coretta Scott King, following Martin Luther King Jr.'s assassination. After thinking it over, Baker declined the offer out of concern for the welfare of her children.[5][6] She was also known for aiding the French Resistance during World War II.[7] After the war, she was awarded the Croix de guerreby the French military, and was named a Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur by General Charles de Gaulle.[8]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephine_Baker


Section 2: Stone wall
The Stonewall riots (also referred to as the Stonewall uprising or the Stonewall rebellion) were a series of spontaneous, violent demonstrations by members of the gay (LGBT) community[note 1] against a police raid that began in the early morning hours of June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. They are widely considered to constitute the most important event leading to the gay liberation movement[4][5][6][7] and the modern fight for LGBT rights in the United States.[8][9] Gay Americans in the 1950s and 1960s faced an anti-gay legal system.[note 2][10] Early homophile groups in the U.S. sought to prove that gay people could be assimilated into society, and they favored non-confrontational education for homosexuals and heterosexualsalike. The last years of the 1960s, however, were very contentious, as many social/political movements were active, including the civil rights movement, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the anti-Vietnam War movement. These influences, along with the liberal environment of Greenwich Village, served as catalysts for the Stonewall riots. Very few establishments welcomed gay people in the 1950s and 1960s. Those that did were often bars, although bar owners and managers were rarely gay. At the time, the Stonewall Inn was owned by the Mafia.[11][12][13] It catered to an assortment of patrons and was known to be popular among the poorest and most marginalized people in the gay community: drag queens, transgender people, effeminate young men, butch lesbians, male prostitutes, and homeless youth. Police raids on gay bars were routine in the 1960s, but officers quickly lost control of the situation at the Stonewall Inn. Tensions between New York City police and gay residents of Greenwich Village erupted into more protests the next evening, and again several nights later. Within weeks, Village residents quickly organized into activist groups to concentrate efforts on establishing places for gays and lesbians to be open about their sexual orientation without fear of being arrested. After the Stonewall riots, gays and lesbians in New York City faced gender, race, class, and generational obstacles to becoming a cohesive community. Within six months, two gay activist organizations were formed in New York, concentrating on confrontational tactics, and three newspapers were established to promote rights for gays and lesbians. Within a few years, gay rights organizations were founded across the U.S. and the world. On June 28, 1970, the first gay pride marches took place in New York, Los Angeles, and San Francisco,[14] and the anniversary of the riots was commemorated in Chicago. Similar marches were organized in other cities. The Stonewall National Monument was established at the site in 2016.[15] Today, LGBT Pride events are held annually throughout the world toward the end of June to mark the Stonewall riots. Stonewall 50 - WorldPride NYC 2019 commemorated the 50th anniversary of the Stonewall uprising with city officials estimating 5 million attendees in Manhattan,[16] and on June 6, 2019, New York City Police Commissioner James P. O'Neill rendered a formal apology on behalf of the New York Police Department for the actions of its officers at Stonewall in 1969. Chapter 6: Leadership

Section 1: Leadership
leadership /ˈliːdəʃɪp
noun the action of leading a group of people or an organization. "different styles of leadership" synonyms: guidance, direction, authority, control, management, superintendence, supervision; More the state or position of being a leader. "the party prospered under his leadership" synonyms: headship, directorship, direction, governorship, governance, administration,  jurisdiction, captaincy, superintendency, control, ascendancy, rule, command,  power, mastery, domination, dominion, premiership, sovereignty "she won the leadership of the Conservative Party" the leaders of an organization, country, etc. plural noun: leaderships "the leadership was divided into two camps" Section 1: Leadership Section 2 : Hermata Section 3: Kawiya Section 4: Abati Gizi/ Father Time Section 5: Ibu Jagat/ Mother Universe Section 6: Karima

Section 7: Jesus Christ Jesus' childhood home is identified in the gospels of Luke and Matthew as the town of Nazareth in Galilee, where he lived with his family. Although Joseph appears in descriptions of Jesus' childhood, no mention is made of him thereafter.[128] His other family members—his mother, Mary, his brothers James, Joses (or Joseph), Judas and Simon and his unnamed sisters—are mentioned in the gospels and other sources.[129] The Gospel of Mark reports that Jesus comes into conflict with his neighbors and family.[130] Jesus' mother and brothers come to get him (Mark 3:31–35) because people are saying that he is crazy (Mark 3:21). Jesus responds that his followers are his true family. In John, Mary follows Jesus to his crucifixion, and he expresses concern over her well-being (John 19:25–27). Jesus is called a τέκτων (tektōn) in Mark 6:3, traditionally understood as carpenter but could cover makers of objects in various materials, including builders.[131][132] The gospels indicate that Jesus could read, paraphrase, and debate scripture, but this does not necessarily mean that he received formal scribal training.[133] When Jesus is presented as a baby in the temple per Jewish Law, a man named Simeon says to Mary and Joseph that Jesus "shall stand as a sign of contradiction, while a sword will pierce your own soul. Then the secret thoughts of many will come to light" (Luke 2:28–35). Several years later, when Jesus goes missing on a visit to Jerusalem, his parents find him in the temple sitting among the teachers, listening to them and asking questions, and the people are amazed at his understanding and answers; Mary scolds Jesus for going missing, to which Jesus replies that he must "be in his father's house" (Luke 2:41–52). Baptism and temptation Main articles: Baptism of Jesus and Temptation of Christ
The Baptism of Christ (1895) by Almeida Júnior The Synoptic accounts of Jesus' baptism are all preceded by information about John the Baptist.[134][135][136] They show John preaching penance and repentance for the remission of sins and encouraging the giving of alms to the poor (Luke 3:11) as he baptizes people in the area of the Jordan River around Perea and foretells (Luke 3:16) the arrival of someone "more powerful" than he.[137][138] Later, Jesus identifies John as "the Elijah who was to come" (Matthew 11:14, Mark 9:13–14), the prophet who was expected to arrive before the "great and terrible day of the Lord" (Malachi 4:5). Likewise, Luke says that John had the spirit and power of Elijah (Luke 1:17). In Mark, John baptizes Jesus, and as he comes out of the water he sees the Holy Spirit descending to him like a dove and he hears a voice from heaven declaring him to be God's Son (Mark 1:9–11). This is one of two events described in the gospels where a voice from Heaven calls Jesus "Son", the other being the Transfiguration.[139][140] The spirit then drives him into the wilderness where he is tempted by Satan(Mark 1:12–13). Jesus then begins his ministry after John's arrest (Mark 1:14). Jesus' baptism in Matthew is similar. Here, before Jesus' baptism, John protests, saying, "I need to be baptized by you" (Matthew 3:14). Jesus instructs him to carry on with the baptism "to fulfill all righteousness" (Matthew 3:15). Matthew also details the three temptations that Satan offers Jesus in the wilderness (Matthew 4:3–11). In Luke, the Holy Spirit descends as a dove after everyone has been baptized and Jesus is praying (Luke 3:21–22). John implicitly recognizes Jesus from prison after sending his followers to ask about him (Luke 7:18–23). Jesus' baptism and temptation serve as preparation for his public ministry.[141] The Gospel of John leaves out Jesus' baptism and temptation.[142] Here, John the Baptist testifies that he saw the Spirit descend on Jesus (John 1:32).[138][143] John publicly proclaims Jesus as the sacrificial Lamb of God, and some of John's followers become disciples of Jesus.[95]In this Gospel, John denies that he is Elijah (John 1:21). Before John is imprisoned, Jesus leads his followers to baptize disciples as well (John 3:22–24), and they baptize more people than John (John 4:1). Public ministry Main article: Ministry of Jesus Sermon on the Mount, an 1877 painting by Carl Bloch (1877) depicts Jesus' important discourse The Synoptics depict two distinct geographical settings in Jesus' ministry. The first takes place north of Judea, in Galilee, where Jesus conducts a successful ministry; and the second shows Jesus rejected and killed when he travels to Jerusalem.[25] Often referred to as "rabbi",[25] Jesus preaches his message orally.[24] Notably, Jesus forbids those who recognize him as the Messiah to speak of it, including people he heals and demons he exorcises (see Messianic Secret).[144] John depicts Jesus' ministry as largely taking place in and around Jerusalem, rather than in Galilee; and Jesus' divine identity is openly proclaimed and immediately recognized.[109] Scholars divide the ministry of Jesus into several stages. The Galilean ministry begins when Jesus returns to Galilee from the Judaean Desert after rebuffing the temptation of Satan. Jesus preaches around Galilee, and in Matthew 4:18–20, his first disciples, who will eventually form the core of the early Church, encounter him and begin to travel with him.[136][145] This period includes the Sermon on the Mount, one of Jesus' major discourses,[145][146] as well as the calming of the storm, the feeding of the 5,000, walking on water and a number of other miracles and parables.[147] It ends with the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration.[148][149] As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the Perean ministry, he returns to the area where he was baptized, about a third of the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the Jordan River (John 10:40–42).[150][151] The final ministry in Jerusalem begins with Jesus' triumphal entryinto the city on Palm Sunday.[152] In the Synoptic Gospels, during that week Jesus drives the money changers from the Second Temple and Judas bargains to betray him. This period culminates in the Last Supper and the Farewell Discourse Jesus was born circa 6 B.C. in Bethlehem. His mother, Mary, was a virgin who was betrothed to Joseph, a carpenter. Christians believe Jesus was born through Immaculate Conception. His lineage can be traced back to the house of David. According to the Gospel of Matthew (2:1), Jesus was born during the reign of Herod the Great, who upon hearing of his birth felt threatened and tried to kill Jesus by ordering all of Bethlehem’s male children under age two to be killed. But Joseph was warned by an angel and took Mary and the child to Egypt until Herod’s death, where upon he brought the family back and settled in the town of Nazareth, in Galilee.

There is very little written about Jesus's early life. The Gospel of Luke (2:41-52) recounts that a 12-year-old Jesus had accompanied his parents on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and became separated. He was found several days later in a temple, discussing affairs with some of Jerusalem’s elders. Throughout the New Testament, there are trace references of Jesus working as a carpenter while a young adult. It is believed that he began his ministry at age 30 when he was baptized by John the Baptist, who upon seeing Jesus, declared him the Son of God. After baptism, Jesus went into the Judean desert to fast and meditate for 40 days and nights. The Temptation of Christ is chronicled in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke (known as the Synoptic Gospels). The Devil appeared and tempted Jesus three times, once to turn stone to bread, once to cast himself off a mountain where angels would save him, and once to offer him all the kingdoms of the world. All three times, Jesus rejected the Devil's temptation and sent him off.

Jesus's Ministry Jesus returned to Galilee and made trips to neighboring villages. During this time, several people became his disciples. One of these was Mary Magdalene, who is first mentioned the Gospel of Luke (16:9) and later in all four gospels at the crucifixion. Though not mentioned in the context of the "12 disciples," she is considered to have been involved in Jesus's ministry from the beginning to his death and after. According to the gospels of Mark and John, Jesus appeared to Magdalene first after his resurrection. According to the Gospel of John (2:1-11), as Jesus was beginning his ministry, he and his disciples traveled with his mother, Mary, to a wedding at Cana in Galilee. The wedding host had run out of wine and Jesus's mother came to him for help. At first, Jesus refused to intervene, but then he relented and asked a servant to bring him large jars filled with water. He turned the water into a wine of higher quality than any served during the wedding. John's gospel depicts the event as the first sign of Jesus's glory and his disciples' belief in him. After the wedding, Jesus, his mother Mary and his disciples traveled to Jerusalem for Passover. At the temple, they saw moneychangers and merchants selling wares. In a rare display of anger, Jesus overturned the tables and, with a whip made of cords, drove them out, declaring that his Father’s house is not a house for merchants. The Synoptic Gospels chronicle Jesus as he traveled through Judea and Galilee, using parables and miracles to explain how the prophecies were being fulfilled and that the kingdom of God was near. As word spread of Jesus's teaching and healing the sick and diseased, more people began to follow him. At one point, Jesus came to a level area and was joined by a great number of people. There, at the Sermon on the Mount, he presented several discourses, known as the Beatitudes, which encapsulate many of the spiritual teachings of love, humility and compassion. As Jesus continued preaching about the kingdom of God, the crowds grew larger and began to proclaim him as the son of David and as the Messiah. The Pharisees heard of this and publicly challenged Jesus, accusing him of having the power of Satan. He defended his actions with a parable, then questioned their logic and told them such thinking denied the power of God, which only further hardened their resolve to work against him. Near the city of Caesarea Philippi, Jesus talked with his disciples. According to the gospels of Matthew (16:13), Mark (8:27) and Luke (9:18), he asked, "Who do you say that I am?" The question confused them, and only Peter responded, saying, "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God." Jesus blessed Peter, accepting the titles of "Christ" and the "Son of God," and declared the proclamation was a divine revelation from God. Jesus then proclaimed Peter to be the leader of the church. Jesus then warned his disciples of the Pharisees’ conspiracy against him and of his fate to suffer and be killed, only to rise from the dead on the third day.

Less than a week later, Jesus took three of his disciples to a high mountain where they could pray alone. According to the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus's face began shining like the sun and his entire body glowed with a white light. Then, the prophets Elijah and Moses appeared, and Jesus talked to them. A bright cloud emerged around them, and a voice said, "This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased; listen to him." This event, known as the Transfiguration, is a pivotal moment in Christian theology. It supports the identity of Jesus as the Christ, the Son of the living God. Jesus arrived in Jerusalem, the week before the holiday of Passover, riding on a donkey. Great numbers of people took palm branches and greeted him at the city's entry. They praised him as the Son of David and as the Son of God. The priests and Pharisees, fearful of the growing public adulation, felt he must be stopped. All four Gospels describe Jesus's final week in Jerusalem. During this time, Jesus raised Lazarus from the dead, confronted moneychangers and merchants in the temple, and debated with the high priests who questioned Jesus's authority. He told his disciples about the coming days and that Jerusalem's temple would be destroyed. Meanwhile, the chief priests and elders met with high priest Caiaphas, and set plans in motion to arrest Jesus. One of the disciples, Judas, met with the chief priests and told them how he would deliver Jesus to them. They agreed to pay him 30 pieces of silver. The Last Supper Jesus and his 12 disciples met for the Passover meal, and he gave them his final words of faith. He also foretold of his betrayal by one of the disciples and privately let Judas know it was he. Jesus told Peter that before a rooster crowed the next morning, he would have denied knowing Jesus three times. At the end of the meal, Jesus instituted the Eucharist, which in the Christian religion, signifies the covenant between God and humans. After the Last Supper, Jesus and his disciples went to the Garden of Gethsemane to pray. Jesus asked God if this cup (his suffering and death) might pass by him. He implored a group of his disciples to pray with him, but they kept falling asleep. Then the time had come. Soldiers and officials appeared, and Judas was with them. He gave Jesus a kiss on the cheek to identify him and the soldiers arrested Jesus. One disciple tried to resist the arrest, brandished his sword and cut the ear off one of the soldiers. But Jesus admonished him and healed the soldier's wound. After his arrest, many of the disciples went into hiding. Jesus was taken to the high priest and interrogated. He was hit and spat upon for not responding. Meanwhile, Peter had followed Jesus to the high priests' court. As he hid in the shadows, three house servants asked if he was one of Jesus' disciples and each time he denied it. After each denial, a rooster crowed. Then Jesus was led out of the house and looked directly at Peter. Peter remembered how Jesus had told him he would deny him and he wept bitterly. Judas, who was watching from a distance, became distraught by his betrayal of Jesus and attempted to return the 30 pieces of silver. The priests told him his guilt was his own. He threw the coins into the temple and later hanged himself.

The Crucifixion The next day, Jesus was taken to the high court where he was mocked, beaten and condemned for claiming to be the Son of God. He was brought before Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea. The priests accused Jesus of claiming to be the king of the Jews and asked that he be condemned to death. At first Pilate tried to pass Jesus off to King Herod, but he was brought back, and Pilate told the Jewish priests he could find no fault with Jesus. The priests reminded him that anyone who claimed to be a king speaks against Caesar. Pilate publicly washed his hands of responsibility, yet ordered the crucifixion in response to the demands of the crowd. The Roman soldiers whipped and beat Jesus, placed a crown of thorns on his head and then led him off to Mount Calvary. Jesus was crucified with two thieves, one at his left and the other at his right. Above his head was the charge against him, "King of the Jews." At his feet were his mother, Mary, and Mary Magdalene. The Gospels describe various events that occurred during the last three hours of his life, including the taunting by the soldiers and the crowd, Jesus's agony and outbursts, and his final words. While Jesus was on the cross, the sky darkened, and immediately upon his death, an earthquake erupted, tearing the temple's curtain from top to bottom. A soldier confirmed his death by sticking a spear into his side, which produced only water. He was taken down from the cross and buried in a nearby tomb. https://www.biography.com/religious-figure/jesus-christ
Section 8: Haile Selassie Early life[edit] Ras Makonnen Woldemikael and his son LijTafari Makonnen Haile Selassie's royal line (through his father's mother) descended from Sahle Selassie,[26] He was born on 23 July 1892, in the village of Ejersa Goro, in the Harar province of Ethiopia. His mother was Woizero ("Lady") Yeshimebet Ali Abba Jifar, daughter of the renowned Oromo ruler of Wollo province Dejazmach Ali Abba Jifar.[27] His maternal grandmother was of Gurage heritage.[28] Tafari's father was Ras Makonnen Woldemikael Gudessa, the governor of Harar. Ras Makonnen served as a general in the First Italo–Ethiopian War, playing a key role at the Battle of Adwa;[27] he too was paternally Oromo but maternally Amhara.[28] Haile Selassie was thus able to ascend to the imperial throne through his paternal grandmother, Woizero Tenagnework Sahle Selassie, who was an aunt of Emperor Menelik II and daughter of Negus Sahle Selassie of Shewa. As such, Haile Selassie claimed direct descent from Makeda, the Queen of Sheba, and King Solomon of ancient Israel.[29] Ras Makonnen arranged for Tafari as well as his first cousin, Imru Haile Selassie, to receive instruction in Harar from Abba Samuel Wolde Kahin, an Ethiopian capuchin monk, and from Dr. Vitalien, a surgeon from Guadeloupe. Tafari was named Dejazmach (literally "commander of the gate", roughly equivalent to "count")[30] at the age of 13, on 1 November 1905.[31] Shortly thereafter, his father Ras Makonnen died at Kulibi, in 1906.[32] Governorship[edit] Dejazmatch Tafari, as governor of Harar Tafari assumed the titular governorship of Selale in 1906, a realm of marginal importance,[33] but one that enabled him to continue his studies.[31] In 1907, he was appointed governor over part of the province of Sidamo. It is alleged that during his late teens, Haile Selassie was married to Woizero Altayech, and that from this union, his daughter Princess Romanework was born.[34] Following the death of his brother Yelma in 1907, the governorate of Harar was left vacant,[33] and its administration was left to Menelik's loyal general, Dejazmach Balcha Safo. Balcha Safo's administration of Harar was ineffective, and so during the last illness of Menelik II, and the brief reign of Empress Taitu Bitul, Tafari was made governor of Harar in 1910[32] or 1911.[35] On 3 August, he married Menen Asfaw of Ambassel, niece of the heir to the throne Lij Iyasu. Regency[edit] The extent to which Tafari Makonnen contributed to the movement that would come to depose Lij Iyasu has been discussed extensively, particularly in Haile Selassie's own detailed account of the matter. Iyasu was the designated but uncrowned emperor of Ethiopia from 1913 to 1916. Iyasu's reputation for scandalous behavior and a disrespectful attitude towards the nobles at the court of his grandfather, Menelik II,[36] damaged his reputation. Iyasu's flirtation with Islam was considered treasonous among the Ethiopian Orthodox Christian leadership of the empire. On 27 September 1916, Iyasu was deposed.[37] Contributing to the movement that deposed Iyasu were conservatives such as Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis, Menelik II's longtime Minister of War. The movement to depose Iyasu preferred Tafari, as he attracted support from both progressive and conservative factions. Ultimately, Iyasu was deposed on the grounds of conversion to Islam.[18][37] In his place, the daughter of Menelik II (the aunt of Iyasu) was named Empress Zewditu, while Tafari was elevated to the rank of Ras and was made heir apparent and Crown Prince. In the power arrangement that followed, Tafari accepted the role of Regent Plenipotentiary (Balemulu 'Inderase)[nb 5] and became the de facto ruler of the Ethiopian Empire (Mangista Ityop'p'ya). Zewditu would govern while Tafari would administer.[38] Empress Zewditu with one of her trusted priests While Iyasu had been deposed on 27 September 1916, on 8 October he managed to escape into the Ogaden Desert and his father, Negus Mikael of Wollo, had time to come to his aid.[39] On 27 October, Negus Mikael and his army met an army under Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis loyal to Zewditu and Tafari. During the Battle of Segale, Negus Mikael was defeated and captured. Any chance that Iyasu would regain the throne was ended and he went into hiding. On 11 January 1921, after avoiding capture for about five years, Iyasu was taken into custody by Gugsa Araya Selassie. On 11 February 1917, the coronation for Zewditu took place. She pledged to rule justly through her Regent, Tafari. While Tafari was the more visible of the two, Zewditu was far from an honorary ruler. Her position required that she arbitrate the claims of competing factions. In other words, she had the last word. Tafari carried the burden of daily administration but, because his position was relatively weak, this was often an exercise in futility for him. Initially his personal army was poorly equipped, his finances were limited, and he had little leverage to withstand the combined influence of the Empress, the Minister of War, or the provincial governors.[39] During his Regency, the new Crown Prince developed the policy of cautious modernization initiated by Menelik II. Also, during this time, he survived the 1918 flu pandemic, having come down with the illness.[40] He secured Ethiopia's admission to the League of Nations in 1923 by promising to eradicate slavery; each emperor since Tewodros II had issued proclamations to halt slavery,[41] but without effect: the internationally scorned practice persisted well into Haile Selassie's reign with an estimated 2 million slaves in Ethiopia in the early 1930s.[42][43] Travel abroad[edit] In 1924, Ras Tafari toured Europe and the Middle East visiting Jerusalem, Alexandria, Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam, Stockholm, London, Geneva, and Athens. With him on his tour was a group that included Ras Seyum Mangasha of western Tigray Province; Ras Hailu Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam province; Ras Mulugeta Yeggazu of Illubabor Province; RasMakonnen Endelkachew; and Blattengeta Heruy Welde Sellase. The primary goal of the trip to Europe was for Ethiopia to gain access to the sea. In Paris, Tafari was to find out from the French Foreign Ministry (Quai d'Orsay) that this goal would not be realized.[44] However, failing this, he and his retinue inspected schools, hospitals, factories, and churches. Although patterning many reforms after European models, Tafari remained wary of European pressure. To guard against economic imperialism, Tafari required that all enterprises have at least partial local ownership.[45] Of his modernization campaign, he remarked, "We need European progress only because we are surrounded by it. That is at once a benefit and a misfortune."[46] Throughout Tafari's travels in Europe, the Levant, and Egypt, he and his entourage were greeted with enthusiasm and fascination. He was accompanied by Seyum Mangasha and Hailu Tekle Haymanot who, like Tafari, were sons of generals who contributed to the victorious war against Italy a quarter-century earlier at the Battle of Adwa.[47] Another member of his entourage, Mulugeta Yeggazu, actually fought at Adwa as a young man. The "Oriental Dignity" of the Ethiopians[48] and their "rich, picturesque court dress"[49] were sensationalized in the media; among his entourage he even included a pride of lions, which he distributed as gifts to President Alexandre Millerand and Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré of France, to King George V of the United Kingdom, and to the Zoological Garden (Jardin Zoologique) of Paris, France.[47] As one historian noted, "Rarely can a tour have inspired so many anecdotes".[47] In return for two lions, the United Kingdom presented Tafari with the imperial crown of Emperor Tewodros II for its safe return to Empress Zewditu. The crown had been taken by General Sir Robert Napier during the 1868 Expedition to Abyssinia.[50] In this period, the Crown Prince visited the Armenian monastery of Jerusalem. There, he adopted 40 Armenian orphans (አርባ ልጆች Arba Lijoch, "forty children"), who had lost their parents in Ottoman massacres. Tafari arranged for the musical education of the youths, and they came to form the imperial brass band.[51] King and Emperor[edit] See also: Modernisation of Ethiopia under Haile Selassie I Emperor Haile Selassie standing in front of throne c. 1965 Tafari's authority was challenged in 1928 when Dejazmach Balcha Safo went to Addis Ababa with a sizeable armed force. When Tafari consolidated his hold over the provinces, many of Menelik's appointees refused to abide by the new regulations. Balcha Safo, the governor (Shum) of coffee-rich Sidamo Province, was particularly troublesome. The revenues he remitted to the central government did not reflect the accrued profits and Tafari recalled him to Addis Ababa. The old man came in high dudgeon and, insultingly, with a large army.[nb 6] The Dejazmatch paid homage to Empress Zewditu, but snubbed Tafari.[52][53] On 18 February, while Balcha Safo and his personal bodyguard[nb 7] were in Addis Ababa, Tafari had Ras Kassa Haile Darge buy off his army and arranged to have him displaced as the Shum of Sidamo Province[54] by Birru Wolde Gabriel who himself was replaced by Desta Damtew.[39] Even so, the gesture of Balcha Safo empowered Empress Zewditu politically and she attempted to have Tafari tried for treason. He was tried for his benevolent dealings with Italy including a 20-year peace accord which was signed on 2 August.[31] In September, a group of palace reactionaries including some courtiers of the empress, made a final bid to get rid of Tafari. The attempted coup d'état was tragic in its origins and comic in its end. When confronted by Tafari and a company of his troops, the ringleaders of the coup took refuge on the palace grounds in Menelik's mausoleum. Tafari and his men surrounded them only to be surrounded themselves by the personal guard of Zewditu. More of Tafari's khaki clad soldiers arrived and, with superiority of arms, decided the outcome in his favor.[55] Popular support, as well as the support of the police,[52] remained with Tafari. Ultimately, the Empress relented and, on 7 October 1928, she crowned Tafari as Negus (Amharic: "King"). The crowning of Tafari as King was controversial. He occupied the same territory as the empress rather than going off to a regional kingdom of the empire. Two monarchs, even with one being the vassal and the other the emperor (in this case empress), had never occupied the same location as their seat in Ethiopian history. Conservatives agitated to redress this perceived insult to the dignity of the crown, leading to the rebellion of Ras Gugsa Welle. Gugsa Welle was the husband of the empress and the Shum of Begemder Province. In early 1930, he raised an army and marched it from his governorate at Gondar towards Addis Ababa. On 31 March 1930, Gugsa Welle was met by forces loyal to Negus Tafari and was defeated at the Battle of Anchem. Gugsa Welle was killed in action.[56] News of Gugsa Welle's defeat and death had hardly spread through Addis Ababa when the empress died suddenly on 2 April 1930. Although it was long rumored that the empress was poisoned upon the defeat of her husband,[57] or alternately that she died from shock upon hearing of the death of her estranged yet beloved husband,[58] it has since been documented that the Empress succumbed to a flu-like fever and complications from diabetes.[59] Cover of Time magazine, 3 November 1930 With the passing of Zewditu, Tafari himself rose to emperor and was proclaimed Neguse Negest ze-'Ityopp'ya, "King of Kings of Ethiopia". He was crowned on 2 November 1930, at Addis Ababa's Cathedral of St. George. The coronation was by all accounts "a most splendid affair",[60] and it was attended by royals and dignitaries from all over the world. Among those in attendance were The Duke of Gloucester (King George V's son), MarshalFranchet d'Esperey of France, and the Prince of Udine representing King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. Emissaries from the United States,[61] Egypt, Turkey, Sweden, Belgium, and Japan were also present.[60] British author Evelyn Waugh was also present, penning a contemporary report on the event, and American travel lecturer Burton Holmes shot the only known film footage of the event.[62] One newspaper report suggested that the celebration may have incurred a cost in excess of $3,000,000.[63] Many of those in attendance received lavish gifts;[64] in one instance, the Christian emperor even sent a gold-encased Bible to an American bishop who had not attended the coronation, but who had dedicated a prayer to the emperor on the day of the coronation.[65] Haile Selassie introduced Ethiopia's first written constitution on 16 July 1931,[66] providing for a bicameral legislature.[67] The constitution kept power in the hands of the nobility, but it did establish democratic standards among the nobility, envisaging a transition to democratic rule: it would prevail "until the people are in a position to elect themselves."[68] The constitution limited the succession to the throne to the descendants of Haile Selassie, a point that met with the disapprobation of other dynastic princes, including the princes of Tigrai and even the emperor's loyal cousin, Ras Kassa Haile Darge. In 1932, the Sultanate of Jimma was formally absorbed into Ethiopia following the death of Sultan Abba Jifar II of Jimma. Conflict with Italy[edit] See also: Abyssinia Crisis and Second Italo-Abyssinian War Ethiopia became the target of renewed Italian imperialist designs in the 1930s. Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime was keen to avenge the military defeats Italy had suffered to Ethiopia in the First Italo-Abyssinian War, and to efface the failed attempt by "liberal" Italy to conquer the country, as epitomised by the defeat at Adwa.[69][70][71] A conquest of Ethiopia could also empower the cause of fascism and embolden its rhetoric of empire.[71] Ethiopia would also provide a bridge between Italy's Eritrean and Italian Somalilandpossessions. Ethiopia's position in the League of Nations did not dissuade the Italians from invading in 1935; the "collective security" envisaged by the League proved useless, and a scandal erupted when the Hoare-Laval Pact revealed that Ethiopia's League allies were scheming to appease Italy.[72] Mobilization[edit] Following 5 December 1934 Italian invasion of Ethiopia at Welwel, Ogaden Province, Haile Selassie joined his northern armies and set up headquarters at Desse in Wollo province. He issued his mobilization order on 3 October 1935: If you withhold from your country Ethiopia the death from cough or head-cold of which you would otherwise die, refusing to resist (in your district, in your patrimony, and in your home) our enemy who is coming from a distant country to attack us, and if you persist in not shedding your blood, you will be rebuked for it by your Creator and will be cursed by your offspring. Hence, without cooling your heart of accustomed valour, there emerges your decision to fight fiercely, mindful of your history that will last far into the future… If on your march you touch any property inside houses or cattle and crops outside, not even grass, straw, and dung excluded, it is like killing your brother who is dying with you… You, countryman, living at the various access routes, set up a market for the army at the places where it is camping and on the day your district-governor will indicate to you, lest the soldiers campaigning for Ethiopia's liberty should experience difficulty. You will not be charged excise duty, until the end of the campaign, for anything you are marketing at the military camps: I have granted you remission… After you have been ordered to go to war, but are then idly missing from the campaign, and when you are seized by the local chief or by an accuser, you will have punishment inflicted upon your inherited land, your property, and your body; to the accuser I shall grant a third of your property… On 19 October 1935, Haile Selassie gave more precise orders for his army to his Commander-in-Chief, Ras Kassa: When you set up tents, it is to be in caves and by trees and in a wood, if the place happens to be adjoining to these―and separated in the various platoons. Tents are to be set up at a distance of 30 cubits from each other. When an aeroplane is sighted, one should leave large open roads and wide meadows and march in valleys and trenches and by zigzag routes, along places which have trees and woods. When an aeroplane comes to drop bombs, it will not suit it to do so unless it comes down to about 100 metres; hence when it flies low for such action, one should fire a volley with a good and very long gun and then quickly disperse. When three or four bullets have hit it, the aeroplane is bound to fall down. But let only those fire who have been ordered to shoot with a weapon that has been selected for such firing, for if everyone shoots who possesses a gun, there is no advantage in this except to waste bullets and to disclose the men's whereabouts. Lest the aeroplane, when rising again, should detect the whereabouts of those who are dispersed, it is well to remain cautiously scattered as long as it is still fairly close. In time of war it suits the enemy to aim his guns at adorned shields, ornaments, silver and gold cloaks, silk shirts and all similar things. Whether one possesses a jacket or not, it is best to wear a narrow-sleeved shirt with faded colours. When we return, with God's help, you can wear your gold and silver decorations then. Now it is time to go and fight. We offer you all these words of advice in the hope that no great harm should befall you through lack of caution. At the same time, We are glad to assure you that in time of war. We are ready to shed Our blood in your midst for the sake of Ethiopia's freedom…"[73] Haile Selassie in 1934 Compared to the Ethiopians, the Italians had an advanced, modern military which included a large air force. The Italians would also come to employ chemical weapons extensively throughout the conflict, even targeting Red Cross field hospitals in violation of the Geneva Conventions.[74] Progress of the war[edit] Starting in early October 1935, the Italians invaded Ethiopia. But, by November, the pace of invasion had slowed appreciably and Haile Selassie's northern armies were able to launch what was known as the "Christmas Offensive". During this offensive, the Italians were forced back in places and put on the defensive. In early 1936, the First Battle of Tembien stopped the progress of the Ethiopian offensive and the Italians were ready to continue their offensive. Following the defeat and destruction of the northern Ethiopian armies at the Battle of Amba Aradam, the Second Battle of Tembien, and the Battle of Shire, Haile Selassie took the field with the last Ethiopian army on the northern front. On 31 March 1936, he launched a counterattack against the Italians himself at the Battle of Maychew in southern Tigray. The emperor's army was defeated and retreated in disarray. As Haile Selassie's army withdrew, the Italians attacked from the air along with rebellious Raya and Azebo tribesmen on the ground, who were armed and paid by the Italians.[75] When the struggle to resist Italy appeared doomed, Haile Selassie traveled to the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela for fasting and prayer.[76] Haile Selassie made a solitary pilgrimage to the churches at Lalibela, at considerable risk of capture, before returning to his capital.[77]After a stormy session of the council of state, it was agreed that because Addis Ababa could not be defended, the government would relocate to the southern town of Gore, and that in the interest of preserving the Imperial house, the emperor's wife Menen Asfaw and the rest of the imperial family should immediately depart for French Somaliland, and from there continue on to Jerusalem.[citation needed] Exile debate[edit] The emperor arrives in Jerusalem. May 1936 After further debate as to whether Haile Selassie should go to Gore or accompany his family into exile, it was agreed that he should leave Ethiopia with his family and present the case of Ethiopia to the League of Nations at Geneva. The decision was not unanimous and several participants, including the nobleman Blatta Tekle Wolde Hawariat, strenuously objected to the idea of an Ethiopian monarch fleeing before an invading force.[78] Haile Selassie appointed his cousin Ras Imru Haile Selassie as Prince Regent in his absence, departing with his family for French Somaliland on 2 May 1936. On 5 May, Marshal Pietro Badoglio led Italian troops into Addis Ababa, and Mussolini declared Ethiopia an Italian province. Victor Emanuel IIIwas proclaimed as the new Emperor of Ethiopia. On the previous day, the Ethiopian exiles had left French Somaliland aboard the British cruiser HMS Enterprise. They were bound for Jerusalem in the British Mandate of Palestine, where the Ethiopian royal family maintained a residence. The Imperial family disembarked at Haifa and then went on to Jerusalem. Once there, Haile Selassie and his retinue prepared to make their case at Geneva. The choice of Jerusalem was highly symbolic, since the Solomonic Dynasty claimed descent from the House of David. Leaving the Holy Land, Haile Selassie and his entourage sailed aboard the British cruiser HMS Capetown for Gibraltar, where he stayed at the Rock Hotel. From Gibraltar, the exiles were transferred to an ordinary liner. By doing this, the government of the United Kingdom was spared the expense of a state reception.[79] Collective security and the League of Nations, 1936[edit] Mussolini, upon invading Ethiopia, had promptly declared his own "Italian Empire." Because the League of Nations afforded Haile Selassie the opportunity to address the assembly, Italy even withdrew its League delegation, on 12 May 1936.[80] It was in this context that Haile Selassie walked into the hall of the League of Nations, introduced by the President of the Assembly as "His Imperial Majesty, the Emperor of Ethiopia" (Sa Majesté Imperiale, l'Empereur d'Ethiopie). The introduction caused a great many Italian journalists in the galleries to erupt into jeering, heckling, and whistling. As it turned out, they had earlier been issued whistles by Mussolini's son-in-law, Count Galeazzo Ciano.[81] The Romanian delegate, Nicolae Titulescu, famously jumped to his feet in response and cried "To the door with the savages!", and the offending journalists were removed from the hall. Haile Selassie waited calmly for the hall to be cleared, and responded "majestically"[82] with a speech sometimes considered[by whom?] among the most stirring of the 20th century.[8] Although fluent in French, the working language of the League, Haile Selassie chose to deliver his historic speech in his native Amharic. He asserted that, because his "confidence in the League was absolute", his people were now being slaughtered. He pointed out that the same European states that found in Ethiopia's favor at the League of Nations were refusing Ethiopia credit and matériel while aiding Italy, which was employing chemical weapons on military and civilian targets alike. It was at the time when the operations for the encircling of Makale were taking place that the Italian command, fearing a rout, followed the procedure which it is now my duty to denounce to the world. Special sprayers were installed on board aircraft so that they could vaporize, over vast areas of territory, a fine, death-dealing rain. Groups of nine, fifteen, eighteen aircraft followed one another so that the fog issuing from them formed a continuous sheet. It was thus that, as from the end of January 1936, soldiers, women, children, cattle, rivers, lakes, and pastures were drenched continually with this deadly rain. In order to kill off systematically all living creatures, in order to more surely poison waters and pastures, the Italian command made its aircraft pass over and over again. That was its chief method of warfare.[83] Noting that his own "small people of 12 million inhabitants, without arms, without resources" could never withstand an attack by a large power such as Italy, with its 42 million people and "unlimited quantities of the most death-dealing weapons", he contended that all small states were threatened by the aggression, and that all small states were in effect reduced to vassal states in the absence of collective action. He admonished the League that "God and history will remember your judgment."[84] It is collective security: it is the very existence of the League of Nations. It is the confidence that each State is to place in international treaties… In a word, it is international morality that is at stake. Have the signatures appended to a Treaty value only in so far as the signatory Powers have a personal, direct and immediate interest involved? The speech made the emperor an icon for anti-fascists around the world, and Time named him "Man of the Year".[85] He failed, however, to get what he most needed: the League agreed to only partial and ineffective sanctions on Italy. Only six nations in 1937 did not recognize Italy's occupation: China, New Zealand, the Soviet Union, the Republic of Spain, Mexico and the United States.[70] It is often said the League of Nations effectively collapsed due to its failure to condemn Italy's invasion of Abyssinia. Exile[edit] A plate from the dinner service sold by Haile Selassie in England in 1937 Haile Selassie in 1942 Haile Selassie spent his exile years (1936–41) in Bath, England, in Fairfield House, which he bought. The emperor and Kassa Haile Dargetook morning walks together behind the high walls of the 14-room Victorian house. Haile Selassie's favorite reading was "diplomatic history." But most of his serious hours were occupied with the 90,000-word story of his life that he was laboriously writing in Amharic.[86] Prior to Fairfield House, he briefly stayed at Warne's Hotel in Worthing[87] and in Parkside, Wimbledon.[88] A bust of Haile Selassie by Hilda Seligman is in nearby Cannizaro Park to commemorate this time and is a popular place of pilgrimage for London's Rastafari community. Haile Selassie stayed at the Abbey Hotel in Malvern in the 1930s and his granddaughters and daughters of court officials were educated at Clarendon School in North Malvern. During his time in Malvern he attended services at Holy Trinity Church, in Link Top. A blue plaque, commemorating his stay in Malvern, was unveiled on Saturday, 25 June 2011. As part of the ceremony, a delegation from the Rastafari movement gave a short address and a drum recital.[89][90][91][92][93] Haile Selassie's activity in this period was focused on countering Italian propaganda as to the state of Ethiopian resistance and the legality of the occupation.[94] He spoke out against the desecration of houses of worship and historical artifacts (including the theft of a 1,600-year-old imperial obelisk), and condemned the atrocities suffered by the Ethiopian civilian population.[95] He continued to plead for League intervention and to voice his certainty that "God's judgment will eventually visit the weak and the mighty alike",[96] though his attempts to gain support for the struggle against Italy were largely unsuccessful until Italy entered World War II on the German side in June 1940.[97] The emperor's pleas for international support did take root in the United States, particularly among African-American organizations sympathetic to the Ethiopian cause.[98] In 1937, Haile Selassie was to give a Christmas Day radio address to the American people to thank his supporters when his taxi was involved in a traffic accident, leaving him with a fractured knee.[99] Rather than canceling the radio broadcast, he proceeded in much pain to complete the address, in which he linked Christianity and goodwill with the Covenant of the League of Nations, and asserted that "War is not the only means to stop war":[99] With the birth of the Son of God, an unprecedented, an unrepeatable, and a long-anticipated phenomenon occurred. He was born in a stable instead of a palace, in a manger instead of a crib. The hearts of the Wise men were struck by fear and wonder due to His Majestic Humbleness. The kings prostrated themselves before Him and worshipped Him. 'Peace be to those who have good will'. This became the first message. ...Although the toils of wise people may earn them respect, it is a fact of life that the spirit of the wicked continues to cast its shadow on this world. The arrogant are seen visibly leading their people into crime and destruction. The laws of the League of Nations are constantly violated and wars and acts of aggression repeatedly take place… So that the spirit of the cursed will not gain predominance over the human race whom Christ redeemed with his blood, all peace-loving people should cooperate to stand firm in order to preserve and promote lawfulness and peace.[99] During this period, Haile Selassie suffered several personal tragedies. His two sons-in-law, Ras Desta Damtew and Dejazmach Beyene Merid, were both executed by the Italians.[96]The emperor's daughter, Princess Romanework, wife of Dejazmach Beyene Merid, was herself taken into captivity with her children, and she died in Italy in 1941.[100] His daughter Tsehai died during childbirth shortly after the restoration in 1942.[101] After his return to Ethiopia, he donated Fairfield House to the city of Bath as a residence for the aged, until modified in the 1990s to be used as a day care centre.[102] Advanced negotiations are now proceeding for a community group to run the House to preserve and develop it.[citation needed] 1940s and 1950s[edit] Newspaper illustration drawn by Charles H. Alston for the U.S. Office of War Information Domestic Operations Branch News Bureau, 1943 Meeting with Crown Prince Akihitoin 1955 Haile Selassie with Brigadier Daniel Sandford (left) and Colonel Wingate (right) in Dambacha Fort, after its capture, 15 April 1941 Plaque commemorating the visit of Haile Selassie I to Mexico, 1954 – Etiopía Station, line 3 of the Mexico City Metro British forces, which consisted primarily of Ethiopian-backed African and South African colonial troops under the "Gideon Force" of Colonel Orde Wingate, coordinated the military effort to liberate Ethiopia. The emperor himself issued several imperial proclamations in this period, demonstrating that, while authority was not divided up in any formal way, British military might and the emperor's populist appeal could be joined in the concerted effort to liberate Ethiopia.[97] On 18 January 1941, during the East African Campaign, Haile Selassie crossed the border between Sudan and Ethiopia near the village of Um Iddla. The standard of the Lion of Judah was raised again. Two days later, he and a force of Ethiopian patriots joined Gideon Force which was already in Ethiopia and preparing the way.[103] Italy was defeated by a force of the United Kingdom, the Commonwealth of Nations, Free France, Free Belgium, and Ethiopian patriots. On 5 May 1941, Haile Selassie entered Addis Ababa and personally addressed the Ethiopian people, five years to the day since his 1936 exile: Today is the day on which we defeated our enemy. Therefore, when we say let us rejoice with our hearts, let not our rejoicing be in any other way but in the spirit of Christ. Do not return evil for evil. Do not indulge in the atrocities which the enemy has been practicing in his usual way, even to the last. Take care not to spoil the good name of Ethiopia by acts which are worthy of the enemy. We shall see that our enemies are disarmed and sent out the same way they came. As Saint George who killed the dragon is the Patron Saint of our army as well as of our allies, let us unite with our allies in everlasting friendship and amity in order to be able to stand against the godless and cruel dragon which has newly risen and which is oppressing mankind.[104] On 27 August 1942, Haile Selassie confirmed the legal basis for the abolition of slavery that had been enacted by Italy throughout the empire and imposed severe penalties, including death, for slave trading.[105] After World War II, Ethiopia became a charter member of the United Nations. In 1948, the Ogaden, a region disputed with both Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland, was granted to Ethiopia.[106] On 2 December 1950, the UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 390 (V), establishing the federation of Eritrea (the former Italian colony) into Ethiopia.[107] Eritrea was to have its own constitution, which would provide for ethnic, linguistic, and cultural balance, while Ethiopia was to manage its finances, defense, and foreign policy.[107] Despite his centralization policies that had been made before World War II, Haile Selassie still found himself unable to push for all the programmes he wanted. In 1942, he attempted to institute a progressive tax scheme, but this failed due to opposition from the nobility, and only a flat tax was passed; in 1951, he agreed to reduce this as well.[108] Ethiopia was still "semi-feudal",[109]and the emperor's attempts to alter its social and economic form by reforming its modes of taxation met with resistance from the nobility and clergy, which were eager to resume their privileges in the post-war era.[108] Where Haile Selassie actually did succeed in effecting new land taxes, the burdens were often still passed by the landowners to the peasants.[108] Between 1941 and 1959, Haile Selassie worked to establish the autocephaly of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.[110] The Ethiopian Orthodox Church had been headed by the Abuna, a bishop who answered to the Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. In 1942 and 1945, Haile Selassie applied to the Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church to establish the independence of Ethiopian bishops, and when his appeals were denied he threatened to sever relations with the Coptic Church of Alexandria.[110] Finally, in 1959, Pope Kyrillos VIelevated the Abuna to Patriarch-Catholicos.[110] The Ethiopian Church remained affiliated with the Alexandrian Church.[108] In addition to these efforts, Haile Selassie changed the Ethiopian church-state relationship by introducing taxation of church lands, and by restricting the legal privileges of the clergy, who had formerly been tried in their own courts for civil offenses.[108] In 1948, the Harari Muslims of Harar peacefully protested against religious oppression, however the state responded violently. Hundreds were arrested and the entire town of Harar was put under house arrest. The government also took control of many assets and estates belonging to the people.[111][112] This led to a massive exodus of Hararis from the Harari Region, which had not occurred in their history prior.[113][114] The dissatisfaction of the Harari stemmed from the fact that they had never received limited autonomy of Harar, which was promised by Menelik II after his conquest of the kingdom. The promise was eroded by successive Amhara governors. According to historian Tim Carmicheal, Haile Selassie was directly involved in the suppression of the Harari movement through his policies.[115] In keeping with the principle of collective security, for which he was an outspoken proponent, Haile Selassie sent a contingent, under General Mulugueta Bulli, known as the Kagnew Battalion, to take part in the Korean War by supporting the United Nations Command. It was attached to the American 7th Infantry Division, and fought in a number of engagements including the Battle of Pork Chop Hill.[116] In a 1954 speech, the Selassie spoke of Ethiopian participation in the Korean War as a redemption of the principles of collective security: Nearly two decades ago, I personally assumed before history the responsibility of placing the fate of my beloved people on the issue of collective security, for surely, at that time and for the first time in world history, that issue was posed in all its clarity. My searching of conscience convinced me of the rightness of my course and if, after untold sufferings and, indeed, unaided resistance at the time of aggression, we now see the final vindication of that principle in our joint action in Korea, I can only be thankful that God gave me strength to persist in our faith until the moment of its recent glorious vindication.[117] Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia, photographed during a radio broadcast During the celebrations of his Silver Jubilee in November 1955, Haile Selassie introduced a revised constitution,[118] whereby he retained effective power, while extending political participation to the people by allowing the lower house of parliament to become an elected body. Party politics were not provided for. Modern educational methods were more widely spread throughout the Empire, and the country embarked on a development scheme and plans for modernization, tempered by Ethiopian traditions, and within the framework of the ancient monarchical structure of the state. Haile Selassie compromised, when practical, with the traditionalists in the nobility and church. He also tried to improve relations between the state and ethnic groups, and granted autonomy to Afar lands that were difficult to control. Still, his reforms to end feudalism were slow and weakened by the compromises he made with the entrenched aristocracy. The Revised Constitution of 1955 has been criticized for reasserting "the indisputable power of the monarch" and maintaining the relative powerlessness of the peasants.[119] Haile Selassie also maintained cordial relations with the government of the United Kingdom through charitable gestures. He sent aid to the British government in 1947 when Britain was affected by heavy flooding. His letter to Lord Meork, National Distress Fund, London said, "even though We are busy of helping our people who didn't recover from the crises of the war, We heard that your fertile and beautiful country is devastated by the unusually heavy rain, and your request for aid. Therefore, We are sending small amount of money, about one thousand pounds through our embassy to show our sympathy and cooperation."[120] He also left his home in exile, Fairfield House, Bath, to the City of Bath for the use of the aged in 1959. 1960s[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1st & 5th Chairman of the Organization of African Unity
In office
25 May 1963 – 17 July 1964
Succeeded by Gamal Abdel Nasser
In office
5 November 1966 – 11 September 1967
Preceded by Joseph Arthur Ankrah
Succeeded by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
Haile Selassie contributed Ethiopian troops to the United Nations Operation in the Congo peacekeeping force during the 1960 Congo Crisis, to preserve Congolese integrity, per United Nations Security Council Resolution 143. On 13 December 1960, while Haile Selassie was on a state visit to Brazil, his Kebur Zabagna (Imperial Guard) forces staged an unsuccessful coup, briefly proclaiming Haile Selassie's eldest son Asfa Wossen as emperor. The coup d'état was crushed by the regular army and police forces. The coup attempt lacked broad popular support, was denounced by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and was unpopular with the army, air forceand police. Nonetheless, the effort to depose the emperor had support among students and the educated classes.[121] The coup attempt has been characterized as a pivotal moment in Ethiopian history, the point at which Ethiopians "for the first time questioned the power of the king to rule without the people's consent".[122] Student populations began to empathize with the peasantry and poor, and to advocate on their behalf.[122] The coup spurred Haile Selassie to accelerate reform, which was manifested in the form of land grants to military and police officials. Haile Selassie with U.S. President John F. Kennedy, October 1963 The emperor continued to be a staunch ally of the West, while pursuing a firm policy of decolonization in Africa, which was still largely under European colonial rule. The United Nations conducted a lengthy inquiry regarding the status of Eritrea, with the superpowers each vying for a stake in the state's future. Britain, the administrator at the time, suggested the partition of Eritrea between Sudan and Ethiopia, separating Christians and Muslims. The idea was instantly rejected by Eritrean political parties, as well as the UN. A UN plebiscite voted 46 to 10 to have Eritrea be federated with Ethiopia, which was later stipulated on 2 December 1950 in resolution 390 (V). Eritrea would have its own parliament and administration and would be represented in what had been the Ethiopian parliament and would become the federal parliament.[123] Haile Selassie would have none of European attempts to draft a separate Constitution under which Eritrea would be governed, and wanted his own 1955 Constitution protecting families to apply in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 1961 the 30-year Eritrean Struggle for Independence began, followed by Haile Selassie's dissolution of the federation and shutting down of Eritrea's parliament. Emperor Haile Selassie with President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt in Addis Ababa for the Organisation of African Unity summit, 1963. In September 1961, Haile Selassie attended the Conference of Heads of State of Government of Non-Aligned Countries in Belgrade, FPR Yugoslavia. This is considered to be the founding conference of the Non-Aligned Movement. In 1961, tensions between independence-minded Eritreans and Ethiopian forces culminated in the Eritrean War of Independence. The emperor declared Eritrea the fourteenth province of Ethiopia in 1962.[124] The war would continue for 30 years, as first Haile Selassie, then the Soviet-backed junta that succeeded him, attempted to retain Eritrea by force. In 1963, Haile Selassie presided over the formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), the precursor of the continent-wide African Union (AU). The new organization would establish its headquarters in Addis Ababa. In May of that year, Haile Selassie was elected as the OAU's first official chairperson, a rotating seat. Along with Modibo Keïta of Mali, the Ethiopian leader would later help successfully negotiate the Bamako Accords, which brought an end to the border conflict between Morocco and Algeria. In 1964, Haile Selassie would initiate the concept of the United States of Africa, a proposition later taken up by Muammar Gaddafi.[125] On 4 October 1963, Haile Selassie addressed the General Assembly of the United Nations[126][127] referring in his address to his earlier speech to the League of Nations: Twenty-seven years ago, as Emperor of Ethiopia, I mounted the rostrum in Geneva, Switzerland, to address the League of Nations and to appeal for relief from the destruction which had been unleashed against my defenceless nation, by the fascist invader. I spoke then both to and for the conscience of the world. My words went unheeded, but history testifies to the accuracy of the warning that I gave in 1936. Today, I stand before the world organization which has succeeded to the mantle discarded by its discredited predecessor. In this body is enshrined the principle of collective security which I unsuccessfully invoked at Geneva. Here, in this Assembly, reposes the best – perhaps the last – hope for the peaceful survival of mankind.[128] On 25 November 1963, the emperor was among other heads of state, including France's President Charles de Gaulle, who traveled to Washington, D.C., and attended the funeral of assassinated President John F. Kennedy. In 1966, Haile Selassie attempted to replace the historical tax system with a single progressive income tax, which would significantly weaken the nobility who had previously avoided paying most of their taxes[129]. Even with alterations, this law led to a revolt in Gojjam, which was repressed although enforcement of the tax was abandoned. The revolt, having achieved its design in undermining the tax, encouraged other landowners to defy Haile Selassie. Haile Selassie on a state visit to Washington, 1963 While he had fully approved and assured Ethiopia's participation in UN-approved collective security operations, including Korea and Congo, Haile Selassie drew a distinction between it and the non-UN-approved foreign intervention in Indochina, consistently deploring it as needless suffering and calling for the Vietnam War to end on several occasions. At the same time he remained open toward the United States and commended it for making progress with African Americans' Civil Rights legislation in the 1950s and 1960s, while visiting the US several times during these years. In 1967, he visited Montréal, Canada, to open the Ethiopian Pavilion at the Expo '67 World's Fair where he received great acclaim amongst other World leaders there for the occasion. Student unrest became a regular feature of Ethiopian life in the 1960s and 1970s. Marxism took root in large segments of the Ethiopian intelligentsia, particularly among those who had studied abroad and had thus been exposed to radical and left-wing sentiments that were becoming popular in other parts of the globe.[121] Resistance by conservative elements at the Imperial Court and Parliament, and by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, made Haile Selassie's land reform proposals difficult to implement, and also damaged the standing of the government, costing Haile Selassie much of the goodwill he had once enjoyed. This bred resentment among the peasant population. Efforts to weaken unions also hurt his image. As these issues began to pile up, Haile Selassie left much of domestic governance to his Prime Minister, Aklilu Habte Wold, and concentrated more on foreign affairs. 1970s[edit] Haile Selassie I in Toledo (Spain) in April 1971. Picture by Eduardo Butragueño. Outside of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie continued to enjoy enormous prestige and respect. As the longest-serving head of state in power, he was often given precedence over other leaders at state events, such as the state funerals of John F. Kennedy and Charles de Gaulle, the summits of the Non-Aligned Movement, and the 1971 celebration of the 2,500 years of the Persian Empire. In 1970 he visited Italy as a guest of President Giuseppe Saragat, and in Milan he met Giordano Dell'Amore, President of Italian Savings Banks Association. He visited China in October 1971, and was the first foreign head of state to meet Mao Zedong following the death of Mao's designated successor Lin Biao in a plane crash in Mongolia. Human rights in Ethiopia under Selassie's regime were poor. Civil liberties and political rights were low with Freedom House giving Ethiopia a "Not Free" score for both civil liberties and political rights in the last years of Selassie's rule.[130] Common human right abuses included imprisonment and torture of political prisoners and very poor prison conditions.[12] The Imperial Ethiopian Army also carried out a number of these atrocities while fighting the Eritrean separatists. This was due to a policy of destroying Eritrean villages that supported the rebels. There were a number of mass killings of hundreds of civilians during the war in the late 1960s and early '70s.[131][132][133][134] Wollo famine[edit] Famine—mostly in Wollo, north-eastern Ethiopia, as well as in some parts of Tigray—is estimated to have killed 40,000 to 80,000 Ethiopians[10][135] between 1972 and 1974. A BBC News report[136] has cited a 1973 estimate that 200,000 deaths occurred, based on a contemporaneous estimate from the Ethiopian Nutrition Institute. While this figure is still repeated in some texts and media sources, it was an estimate that was later found to be "over-pessimistic".[138] Although the region is infamous for recurrent crop failures and continuous food shortage and starvation risk, this episode was remarkably severe. A 1973 production of the ITV programme The Unknown Famine by Jonathan Dimbleby[139][140]relied on the unverified estimate of 200,000 dead,[136][141] stimulating a massive influx of aid while at the same time destabilizing Haile Selassie's regime.[135] Against that background, a group of dissident army officers instigated a creeping coup against the emperor's faltering regime. To guard against a public backlash in favour of Haile Selassie (who was still widely revered), they contrived to obtain a copy of The Unknown Famine which they intercut with images of Africa's grand old man presiding at a wedding feast in the grounds of his palace. Retitled The Hidden Hunger, this film noir was shown round the clock on Ethiopian television to coincide with the day that they finally summoned the nerve to seize the emperor himself. — Jonathan Dimbleby, "Feeding on Ethiopia's famine"[142] The 1973 oil crisis, the severity of which is demonstrated by this graph, hit Ethiopia amidst a devastating famine, compounding its effect and undermining support for the emperor.[119] Some reports suggest that the emperor was unaware of the extent of the famine,[136] while others assert that he was well aware of it.[143][144] In addition to the exposure of attempts by corrupt local officials to cover up the famine from the imperial government, the Kremlin's depiction of Haile Selassie's Ethiopia as backwards and inept (relative to the purported utopia of Marxism-Leninism) contributed to the popular uprising that led to its downfall and the rise of Mengistu Haile Mariam.[145] The famine and its image in the media undermined popular support of the government, and Haile Selassie's once unassailable personal popularity fell.[146] The crisis was exacerbated by military mutinies and high oil prices, the latter a result of the 1973 oil crisis. The international economic crisis triggered by the oil crisis caused the costs of imported goods, gasoline, and food to skyrocket, while unemployment spiked.[119] Revolution[edit] In February 1974, four days of serious riots in Addis Ababa against a sudden economic inflation left five dead. The emperor responded by announcing on national television a reduction in petrol prices and a freeze on the cost of basic commodities. This calmed the public, but the promised 33% military wage hike was not substantial enough to pacify the army, which then mutinied, beginning in Asmara and spreading throughout the empire. This mutiny led to the resignation of Prime Minister Aklilu Habte-Wold on 27 February 1974.[147] Haile Selassie again went on television to agree to the army's demands for still greater pay, and named Endelkachew Makonnen as his new Prime Minister. Despite Endalkatchew's many concessions, discontent continued in March with a four-day general strike that paralyzed the nation. Imprisonment[edit] The deposition of Emperor Haile Selassie I (above rear window) from the Jubilee Palace on 12 September 1974, marking the coup d'état's action on that day and the assumption of power by the Derg. The Derg, a committee of low-ranking military officers and enlisted men, set up in June to investigate the military's demands, took advantage of the government's disarray to depose the 82-year-old Selassie on 12 September.[148] General Aman Mikael Andom, a Protestant of Eritrean origin,[147] served briefly as provisional head of state pending the return of Crown Prince Asfa Wossen, who was then receiving medical treatment abroad. Selassie was placed under house arrest briefly at the 4th Army Division in Addis Ababa,[147] while most of his family was detained at the late Duke of Harar's residence in the north of the capital. The last months of the emperor's life were spent in imprisonment, in the Grand Palace.[149] Reportedly, his mental condition was such that he believed he was still Emperor of Ethiopia.[150] Later, most of the imperial family was imprisoned in the Addis Ababa prison Kerchele, also known as "Alem Bekagne", or "I've had Enough of This World". On 23 November, sixty former high officials of the imperial government were executed by firing squad without trial,[151] which included Selassie's grandson Iskinder Desta, a rear admiral, as well as General Andom and two former prime ministers.[149][152] These killings, known to Ethiopians as "Bloody Saturday", were condemned by Crown Prince Asfa Wossen; the Derg responded to his rebuke by revoking its acknowledgment of his imperial legitimacy, and announcing the end of the Solomonic dynasty.[151] Death and interment[edit] On 28 August 1975, the state media reported that Selassie had died on 27 August of "respiratory failure" following complications from a prostate examination followed up by a prostate operation.[153] Dr. Asrat Woldeyes denied that complications had occurred and rejected the government version of his death.[citation needed] An Ethiopian court found several former military officers guilty of strangling the emperor in his bed in 1994, three years after the military socialist Derg regime was overthrown.[154] The court charged them with genocide and murder, claiming that it had obtained documents attesting to a high-level order from the military regime to assassinate Selassie for leading a "feudal regime".[155]Documents have been widely circulated online showing the Derg's final assassination order and bearing the military regime's seal and signature.[156][157] The veracity of these documents has been corroborated by multiple former members of the military Derg regime.[158][159] The Soviet-backed PDRE fell in 1991. In 1992, Selassie's bones were found under a concrete slab on the palace grounds,[160] though some reports suggest that his remains were discovered beneath a latrine.[161] Selassie's coffin rested in Bhata Church for nearly a decade, near his great-uncle Menelik II's resting place.[162] On 5 November 2000, the Ethiopian Orthodox church gave him a funeral, but the government refused calls to declare the ceremony an official imperial funeral.[162] Prominent Rastafari figures such as Rita Marley participated in the funeral, but most Rastafari rejected the event and refused to accept that the bones were the remains of Selassie. There is some debate within the Rastafari movement whether he actually died in 1975.[163]


Section 9: Mahatma Gandhi

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (/ˈɡɑːndi, ˈɡændi/;[2] Hindustani: [ˈmoːɦəndaːs ˈkərəmtʃənd ˈɡaːndʱi] ( listen); 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was an Indian activist who was the leader of the Indian independence movement against British colonial rule.[3]Employing nonviolent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. The honorific Mahātmā (Sanskrit: "high-souled", "venerable")[4] was applied to him first in 1914 in South Africa[5] and is now used worldwide. In India, he was also called Bapu, a term that he preferred[6] (Gujarati: endearment for father,[7] papa[7][8]), and Gandhi ji, and is known as the Father of the Nation.[9][10] Born and raised in a Hindu family in coastal Gujarat, western India, and trained in law at the Inner Temple, London, Gandhi first employed nonviolent civil disobedience as an expatriate lawyer in South Africa, in the resident Indian community's struggle for civil rights. After his return to India in 1915, he set about organising peasants, farmers, and urban labourers to protest against excessive land-tax and discrimination. Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for various social causes and for achieving Swaraj or self-rule.[11] Gandhi led Indians in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the 400 km (250 mi) Dandi Salt March in 1930, and later in calling for the British to Quit India in 1942. He was imprisoned for many years, upon many occasions, in both South Africa and India. He lived modestly in a self-sufficient residential community and wore the traditional Indian dhoti and shawl, woven with yarn hand-spun on a charkha. He ate simple vegetarian food, and also undertook long fasts as a means of both self-purification and political protest. Gandhi's vision of an independent India based on religious pluralism was challenged in the early 1940s by a new Muslim nationalism which was demanding a separate Muslim homeland carved out of India.[12] In August 1947, Britain granted independence, but the British Indian Empire[12] was partitioned into two dominions, a Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan.[13] As many displaced Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs made their way to their new lands, religious violence broke out, especially in the Punjab and Bengal. Eschewing the official celebration of independence in Delhi, Gandhi visited the affected areas, attempting to provide solace. In the months following, he undertook several fasts unto death to stop religious violence. The last of these, undertaken on 12 January 1948 when he was 78,[14] also had the indirect goal of pressuring India to pay out some cash assets owed to Pakistan.[14] Some Indians thought Gandhi was too accommodating.[14][15] Among them was Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, who assassinated Gandhi on 30 January 1948 by firing three bullets into his chest.[15] Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is commemorated in India as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday, and worldwide as the International Day of Nonviolence. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi


Section 10: Mother Theresa
Mary Teresa Bojaxhiu[6] (born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu, Albanian: [aˈɲɛzə ˈɡɔndʒɛ bɔjaˈdʒiu]; 26 August 1910 – 5 September 1997), commonly known as Mother Teresa and honoured in the Roman Catholic Church as Saint Teresa of Calcutta,[7] was an Albanian-Indian[4] Roman Catholic nun and missionary.[8] She was born in Skopje (now the capital of North Macedonia), then part of the Kosovo Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. After living in Skopje for eighteen years, she moved to Ireland and then to India, where she lived for most of her life. In 1950, Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity, a Roman Catholic religious congregation that had over 4,500 nuns and was active in 133 countries in 2012. The congregation manages homes for people who are dying of HIV/AIDS, leprosy and tuberculosis. It also runs soup kitchens, dispensaries, mobile clinics, children's and family counselling programmes, as well as orphanages and schools. Members take vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, and also profess a fourth vow—to give "wholehearted free service to the poorest of the poor."[9] Teresa received a number of honours, including the 1962 Ramon Magsaysay Peace Prize and 1979 Nobel Peace Prize. She was canonised (recognised by the church as a saint) on 4 September 2016, and the anniversary of her death (5 September) is her feast day. A controversial figure during her life and after her death, Teresa was admired by many for her charitable work. She was praised and criticised for her opposition to abortion, and criticised for poor conditions in her houses for the dying. Her authorised biography was written by Navin Chawla and published in 1992, and she has been the subject of films and other books. On September 6, 2017, Teresa and St. Francis Xavier were named co-patrons of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Calcutta.
Section 11: Martin Luther King
Section 12: Emmeline Pankhurst
In 1903, the social reformer Emmeline Pankhurst founded the Women’s Social and Political Union to campaign for the parliamentary vote for women in Edwardian Britain, ‘Deeds, not words’ being its motto. A charismatic leader and powerful orator, Pankhurst roused thousands of women to demand, rather than ask politely, for their democratic right in a mass movement that has been unparalleled in British history. Always in the thick of the struggle, she endured 13 imprisonments, her name and cause becoming known throughout the world.
Section 13:Eleanor Roosevelt
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (/ˈɛlɪnɔːr ˈroʊzəvɛlt/; October 11, 1884 – November 7, 1962) was an American political figure, diplomat and activist.[5] She served as the First Lady of the United States from March 4, 1933 to April 12, 1945 during her husband President Franklin D. Roosevelt's four terms in office, making her the longest serving First Lady of the United States.[5] Roosevelt served as United States Delegate to the United Nations General Assembly from 1945 to 1952.[6][7] President Harry S. Truman later called her the "First Lady of the World" in tribute to her human rights achievements.[8] Roosevelt was a member of the prominent American Roosevelt and Livingston families and a niece of President Theodore Roosevelt.[7]She had an unhappy childhood, having suffered the deaths of both parents and one of her brothers at a young age. At 15, she attended Allenwood Academy in London and was deeply influenced by its headmistress Marie Souvestre. Returning to the U.S., she married her fifth cousin once removed, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, in 1905. she resolved to seek fulfillment in leading a public life of her own. She persuaded Franklin to stay in politics after he was stricken with a paralytic illness in 1921, which cost him the normal use of his legs, and began giving speeches and appearing at campaign events in his place. Following Franklin's election as Governor of New York in 1928, and throughout the remainder of Franklin's public career in government, Roosevelt regularly made public appearances on his behalf, and as First Lady, while her husband served as President, she significantly reshaped and redefined the role of First Lady. Though widely respected in her later years, Roosevelt was a controversial First Lady at the time for her outspokenness, particularly on civil rights for African-Americans. She was the first presidential spouse to hold regular press conferences, write a daily newspaper column, write a monthly magazine column, host a weekly radio show, and speak at a national party convention. On a few occasions, she publicly disagreed with her husband's policies. She launched an experimental community at Arthurdale, West Virginia, for the families of unemployed miners, later widely regarded as a failure. She advocated for expanded roles for women in the workplace, the civil rights of African Americans and Asian Americans, and the rights of World War II refugees. Following her husband's death in 1945, Roosevelt remained active in politics for the remaining 17 years of her life. She pressed the United States to join and support the United Nations and became its first delegate. She served as the first chair of the UN Commission on Human Rights and oversaw the drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Later she chaired the John F. Kennedyadministration's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women. By the time of her death, Roosevelt was regarded as "one of the most esteemed women in the world"; The New York Times her called "the object of almost universal respect" in an obituary.[9] In 1999, she was ranked ninth in the top ten of Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century.[10] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt
Section 14: Malcom X
Malcolm X (May 19, 1925 – February 21, 1965) was an American Muslim minister and human rights activist who was a popular figure during the civil rights movement. He is best known for his controversial advocacy for the rights of blacks; some consider him a man who indicted white America in the harshest terms for its crimes against black Americans, while others accused him of preaching racism and violence. Born Malcolm Little in Omaha, Nebraska, he relocated to New York City's Harlem neighborhood in 1943, after spending his teenage years in a series of foster homes following his father's murder and his mother's hospitalization. In New York, Little engaged in several illicit activities, and was eventually sentenced to ten years in prison in 1946 for larceny and breaking and entering. In prison, he joined the Nation of Islam (NOI) and changed his name to Malcolm X. After his release, he quickly became one of the organization's most influential leaders after being paroled in 1952. During the civil rights movement, Malcolm X served as the public face of the controversial group for a dozen years, where he advocated for black supremacy, the separation of black and white Americans, and rejected the notion of the civil rights movement for its emphasis on racial integration. He also expressed pride in some of the social achievements he made with the Nation, particularly its free drug rehabilitation program. In the 1950s, Malcolm X endured surveillance from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) for the Nation's supposed links to communism. In the 1960s, Malcolm X began to grow disillusioned with the Nation of Islam, and in particular, with its leader Elijah Muhammad. Expressing many regrets about his time with them, which he had come to regard as largely wasted, he instead embraced Sunni Islam. Malcolm X then began to advocate for racial integration and disavowed racism after completing Hajj, whereby he also became known as el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz.[A] After a brief period of travel across Africa, he notably repudiated the Nation of Islam, and founded Muslim Mosque, Inc. (MMI) and the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU) to emphasize Pan-Africanism. Throughout 1964, his conflict with the Nation of Islam intensified, and he was repeatedly sent death threats. On February 21, 1965, Malcolm X was preparing to address the OAAU in Manhattan when he was assassinated by Thomas Hagan, Thomas Johnson, and Norman Butler, three members of the Nation of Islam. The trio were sentenced to indeterminate life sentences, and were required to serve a minimum of 20 years in prison. Conspiracy theories regarding the assassination, and whether it was conceived or aided by leading members of the Nation or with law enforcement agencies, have persisted for decades after the shooting. Malcolm X was posthumously honored with Malcolm X Day, which commemorates him in various cities and countries worldwide. Hundreds of streets and schools in the U.S. have been renamed in his honor, while the Audubon Ballroom, the site of his assassination, was in part redeveloped in 2005 to accommodate the Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_X
section 15:Claudia Castrosín Verdú
Claudia Roxana Castrosín Verdú, also known as Claudia Castro, is an Argentine LGBT activist. She presides over La Fulana, an organization that supports lesbian and bisexual women, and is also the vice president of the Argentine Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Trans Federation [es] (FALGBT), through which she has contributed to laws sanctioning same-sex marriage, gender identity, and medically assisted reproduction [es].[1] In 2007 she presented, together with María Rachid, her partner at the time, the first judicial protection for declaring the unconstitutionality of two articles of the civil code that prevented marriage between people of the same sex.[2] After the approval of the Equal Marriage Law in 2010, she married Flavia Massenzio and adopted a daughter, Estefanía.[3][4] Castrosín used the name Claudia Castro for twelve years to "protect" her parents, until in 2010 she decided to present herself with her two last names.[5] In 2012, the Buenos Aires City Legislature named her "Outstanding Personality in the field of Human Rights", following a Rachid project.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudia_Castros%C3%ADn_Verd%C3%BA
Section 16: Harvey Milk
Harvey Bernard Milk (May 22, 1930 – November 27, 1978) was an American politician and the first openly gay elected official in the history of California, where he was elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors. Although he was the most pro-LGBTpolitician in the United States at the time, politics and activism were not his early interests; he was neither open about his sexuality nor civically active until he was 40, after his experiences in the counterculture movement of the 1960s. In 1972, Milk moved from New York City to the Castro District of San Francisco amid a migration of gay and bisexual men. He took advantage of the growing political and economic power of the neighborhood to promote his interests and unsuccessfully ran three times for political office. Milk's theatrical campaigns earned him increasing popularity, and in 1977 he won a seat as a city supervisor. His election was made possible by a key component of a shift in San Francisco politics. Milk served almost eleven months in office, during which he sponsored a bill banning discrimination in public accommodations, housing, and employment on the basis of sexual orientation. The Supervisors passed the bill by a vote of 11-1 and was signed into law by Mayor Moscone. On November 27, 1978, Milk and Mayor George Moscone were assassinated by Dan White, who was another city supervisor. White had recently resigned to pursue a private business enterprise, but that endeavor eventually failed and he sought to get his old job back. White was sentenced to seven years in prison for manslaughter, which was later reduced to five years. He was released in 1983 and committed suicide by carbon monoxide inhalation two years later. Despite his short career in politics, Milk became an icon in San Francisco and a martyr in the gay community.[note 1] In 2002, Milk was called "the most famous and most significantly open LGBT official ever elected in the United States".[2] Anne Kronenberg, his final campaign manager, wrote of him: "What set Harvey apart from you or me was that he was a visionary. He imagined a righteous world inside his head and then he set about to create it for real, for all of us."[3] Milk was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2009.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_Milk

Section 17:Wangari Maathai Wangari Maathai was a Kenyan environmental activist who founded the Green Belt Movement which campaigned for the planting of trees, environmental conversation and women’s rights.  The first woman in East and Central Africa to earn a doctorate degree, Maathai was elected to parliament and appointed assistant minister for Environment and Natural Resources from 2003– 2005.  Her work was internationally recognised when, in 2004, she became the first African woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for her contribution to sustainable development, peace and democracy.


Wangarĩ Muta Maathai (wàŋɡàˈɹɛ |m|ɑː|ˈ|t|aɪ; 1 April 1940 – 25 September 2011) was a renowned Kenyan social, environmental and political activist and the first African woman to win the Nobel Prize.[1] She was educated in the United States at Mount St. Scholastica(Benedictine College) and the University of Pittsburgh, as well as the University of Nairobi in Kenya. In 1977, Maathai founded the Green Belt Movement,[2] an environmental non-governmental organization focused on the planting of trees, environmental conservation, and women's rights. In 1984, she was awarded the Right Livelihood Award in 2004. Maathai was an elected member of Parliament and served as assistant minister for Environment and Natural resources in the government of President Mwai Kibaki between January 2003 and November 2005. She was an Honorary Councillor of the World Future Council. She was affiliated to professional bodies and received several awards.[3] On Sunday, 25 September 2011, Maathai died of complications from ovarian cancer. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wangari_Maathai Section 18: Wong Fei hung
Wong was born in Luzhou Hamlet, Lingxi Villige, Xiqiao Country, Foshan Town, Nanhai County, which is a present day part of Foshan City, Guangdong Province, during the reign of the Daoguang Emperor in the Qing dynasty. His ancestral home was in Luzhou Hamlet, Lingxi Villige, Xiqiao Country, Foshan Town, Nanhai County, Guangzhou Prefecture, Guangdong Province, which is now part of Xiqiao Town, Nanhai District, Foshan City.[1] At the age of five, Wong started learning Hung Ga from his father, Wong Kei-ying. He often accompanied his father on trips from Foshan to Guangzhou, the provincial capital of Guangdong Province, where his father peddled medicine and performed martial arts in the streets. When he was 13, he encountered Lam Fuk-sing (林福成; Lin Fucheng), an apprentice of "Iron Bridge Three" Leung Kwan, in Douchi Street in Foshan Town. Lam taught him how to use the sling and the essential moves of the martial art Iron Wire Fist.[1] Later, he learned the Shadowless Kick from Sung Fai-tong (宋輝鏜; Song Huitang).[citation needed] In 1863, Wong started a martial arts school in Shuijiao (水腳) in Xiguan, which is a present day location of Liwan District, Guangzhou City. His students were mainly metal labourers and street vendors. In 1886, Wong opened his family's medical clinic, Po Chi Lam (寶芝林; Baozhilin), in Ren'an (仁安), which is a present day part of Xiaobei Road, Yuexiu District, Guangzhou City.[1] In legend, around the 1860s or 1870s, Wong was recruited by Liu Yongfu, the commander of the Black Flag Army, to be the medical officer and martial arts instructor for the regular soldiers and the local militia in Guangzhou. He also followed the Black Flag Army to fight the Imperial Japanese Army during the Japanese invasion of Taiwan in 1895.[citation needed] In 1912, the Republic of China was established following the collapse of the Qing dynasty. During the chaotic early years of the Republican era, many businessmen who operated places of entertainment in Guangzhou decided to hire guards (or bouncers) to protect their businesses on-site in case trouble broke out. As Wong was trained in martial arts, he was hired by various businesses to be one of such guards.[citation needed] In 1919, when the Chin Woo Athletic Association opened a branch in Guangzhou, Wong was invited to perform at the opening ceremony.[1] In the same year, Wong Hon-sam, one of Wong's sons, who was working as a bodyguard in Wuzhou City, Guangxi Province, was murdered by a rival known as "Devil Eye" Leung (鬼眼梁), who was apparently jealous that Wong Hon-sam was better than him in martial arts. Wong was so affected by this incident that he stopped teaching his other sons martial arts.[5] Between August and October 1924, Wong's medical clinic, Po Chi Lam, was destroyed when the Nationalist government was suppressing the uprising by the Guangzhou Merchant Volunteers Corps. Wong felt so dejected and saddened by the loss of Po Chi Lam that he fell into depression and became ill. He died from illness on 17 April 1925 in Chengxi Fangbian Hospital (城西方便醫院),[6] which is the present day location of the Guangzhou First People's Hospital (廣州市第一人民醫院) at Panfu Road in Guangzhou's Yuexiu District.[7] He was buried at the foot of Baiyun Mountain.[1] Wong's fourth wife, Mok Kwai-lan, and his sons, along with his students Lam Sai-wing and Dang Sai-king (鄧世瓊; Deng Shiqiong), moved to Hong Kong and opened martial arts schools there. Wong's grave location is currently unknown. It is also believed that his grave, along with others within the cemetery were long expunged for future developments.[8]

Section 19: Kofi Annan
Kofi Atta Annan (/ˈkoʊfi ˈænæn/;[1] 8 April 1938 – 18 August 2018) was a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 1997 to December 2006. Annan and the UN were the co-recipients of the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize.[2] He was the founder and chairman of the Kofi Annan Foundation, as well as chairman of The Elders, an international organization founded by Nelson Mandela.[3] Annan studied economics at Macalester College, international relations at the Graduate Institute Geneva, and management at MIT. Annan joined the UN in 1962, working for the World Health Organization's Geneva office. He went on to work in several capacities at the UN Headquarters including serving as the Under-Secretary-General for peacekeeping between March 1992 and December 1996. He was appointed the Secretary-General on 13 December 1996 by the Security Council, and later confirmed by the General Assembly, making him the first office holder to be elected from the UN staff itself. He was re-elected for a second term in 2001, and was succeeded as Secretary-General by Ban Ki-moon on 1 January 2007. As the Secretary-General, Annan reformed the UN bureaucracy; worked to combat HIV/AIDS, especially in Africa; and launched the UN Global Compact. He was criticized for not expanding the Security Council and faced calls for his resignation after an investigation into the Oil-for-Food Programme, but was largely exonerated of personal corruption.[4] After the end of his term as UN Secretary-General, he founded the Kofi Annan Foundation in 2007 to work on international development. In 2012, Annan was the UN–Arab League Joint Special Representative for Syria, to help find a resolution to the ongoing conflict there.[5][6] Annan quit after becoming frustrated with the UN's lack of progress with regards to conflict resolution.[7][8] In September 2016, Annan was appointed to lead a UN commission to investigate the Rohingya crisis.

Early years and education[edit] Kofi Annan was born in the Kofandros section of Kumasi in the Gold Coast (now Ghana) on 8 April 1938. His twin sister Efua Atta, who died in 1991, shared the middle name Atta, which in the Akan language means 'twin'.[10] Annan and his sister were born into one of the country's Ashanti and Fante aristocratic families; both of their grandfathers and their uncle were tribal chiefs.[11] In the Akan names tradition, some children are named according to the day of the week on which they were born, sometimes in relation to how many children precede them. Kofi in Akan is the name that corresponds with Friday.[12] Annan said that his surname rhymes with "cannon" in English.[13] From 1954 to 1957, Annan attended the elite Mfantsipim school, a Methodist boarding school in Cape Coast founded in the 1870s. Annan said that the school taught him that "suffering anywhere, concerns people everywhere".[14] In 1957, the year Annan graduated from Mfantsipim, the Gold Coast gained independence from the UK and began using the name "Ghana". In 1958, Annan began studying economics at the Kumasi College of Science and Technology, now the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology of Ghana. He received a Ford Foundation grant, enabling him to complete his undergraduate studies in economics at Macalester College in St. Paul, Minnesota, United States, in 1961. Annan then completed a diplôme d'études approfondies DEA degree in International Relations at The Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva, Switzerland, from 1961–62. After some years of work experience, he studied at the MIT Sloan School of Management[15] (1971–72) in the Sloan Fellows program and earned a master's degree in management. Annan was fluent in English, French, Akan, and some Kru languages as well as other African languages.[16] Career[edit] In 1962, Kofi Annan started working as a budget officer for the World Health Organization, an agency of the United Nations (UN).[17] From 1974 to 1976, he worked as a manager of the state-owned Ghana Tourist Development Company in Accra.[18] In 1980 he became the head of personnel for the office of the UN High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) in Geneva. In 1983 he became the director of administrative management services of the UN Secretariat in New York. In 1987, Annan was appointed as an Assistant Secretary-General for Human Resources Management and Security Coordinator for the UN system. In 1990, he became Assistant Secretary-General for Program Planning, Budget and Finance, and Control.[18] When Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali established the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) in 1992, Annan was appointed to the new department as Deputy to then Under-Secretary-General Marrack Goulding.[19] Annan was subsequently appointed in March 1993 as Under-Secretary-General of that department.[20] On 29 August 1995, while Boutros-Ghali was unreachable on an airplane, Annan instructed United Nations officials to "relinquish for a limited period of time their authority to veto air strikes in Bosnia." This move allowed NATO forces to conduct Operation Deliberate Force and made him a favorite of the United States. According to Richard Holbrooke, Annan's "gutsy performance" convinced the United States that he would be a good replacement for Boutros-Ghali.[21] He was appointed a Special Representative of the Secretary-General to the former Yugoslavia, serving from November 1995 to March 1996.[22][23] Criticism[edit] In 2003, retired Canadian General Roméo Dallaire, who was force commander of the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda, claimed that Annan was overly passive in his response to the imminent genocide. In his book Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda (2003), Dallaire asserted that Annan held back UN troops from intervening to settle the conflict, and from providing more logistical and material support. Dallaire claimed that Annan failed to provide responses to his repeated faxes asking for access to a weapons depository; such weapons could have helped Dallaire defend the endangered Tutsis. In 2004, ten years after the genocide in which an estimated 800,000 people were killed, Annan said, "I could and should have done more to sound the alarm and rally support."[24] External video  After Words interview with Annan on Interventions, September 9, 2012, C-SPAN In his book Interventions: A Life in War and Peace, Annan again argued that the United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations could have made better use of the media to raise awareness of the violence in Rwanda and put pressure on governments to provide the troops necessary for an intervention. Annan explained that the events in Somalia and the collapse of the UNOSOM II mission fostered a hesitation among UN Member states to approve robust peacekeeping operations. As a result, when the UNAMIR mission was approved just days after the battle, the resulting force lacked the troop levels, resources and mandate to operate effectively.[25] Secretary-General of the United Nations (1997–2006)[edit] Appointment[edit] Main article: United Nations Secretary-General selection, 1996 In 1996, Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali ran unopposed for a second term. Although he won 14 of the 15 votes on the Security Council, he was vetoed by the United States.[26] After four deadlocked meetings of the Security Council, Boutros-Ghali suspended his candidacy, becoming the only Secretary-General ever to be denied a second term. Annan was the leading candidate to replace him, beating Amara Essy by one vote in the first round. However, France vetoed Annan four times before finally abstaining. The UN Security Council recommended Annan on 13 December 1996.[27][28] Confirmed four days later by the vote of the General Assembly,[29] he started his first term as Secretary-General on 1 January 1997. Due to Boutros-Ghali's overthrow, a second Annan term would give Africa the office of Secretary-General for three consecutive terms. In 2001, the Asia-Pacific Group agreed to support Annan for a second term in return for the African Group's support for an Asian Secretary-General in the 2006 selection.[30] The Security Council recommended Annan for a second term on 27 June 2001, and the General Assembly approved his reappointment on 29 June 2001.[31] Activities[edit] Annan with the President of Russia Vladimir Putin at United Nations Headquarters in New York City on 16 November 2001. Recommendations for UN reform[edit] Silk carpet portrait of Kofi Annan at the UN headquarters Soon after taking office in 1997, Annan released two reports on management reform. On 17 March 1997, the report Management and Organisational Measures (A/51/829) introduced new management mechanisms through the establishment of a cabinet-style body to assist him and be grouping the UN's activities in accordance with four core missions. A comprehensive reform agenda was issued on 14 July 1997 entitled Renewing the United Nations: A Programme for Reform (A/51/950). Key proposals included the introduction of strategic management to strengthen unity of purpose, the establishment of the position of Deputy Secretary-General, a 10-percent reduction in posts, a reduction in administrative costs, the consolidation of the UN at the country level, and reaching out to civil society and the private sector as partners. Annan also proposed to hold a Millennium Summit in 2000.[32] After years of research, Annan presented a progress report, In Larger Freedom, to the UN General Assembly, on 21 March 2005. Annan recommended Security Council expansion and a host of other UN reforms.[33] On 31 January 2006, Annan outlined his vision for a comprehensive and extensive reform of the UN in a policy speech to the United Nations Association UK. The speech, delivered at Central Hall, Westminster, also marked the 60th Anniversary of the first meetings of the General Assembly and Security Council.[34] On 7 March 2006, he presented to the General Assembly his proposals for a fundamental overhaul of the United Nations Secretariat. The reform report is entitled Investing in the United Nations, For a Stronger Organization Worldwide.[35] On 30 March 2006, he presented to the General Assembly his analysis and recommendations for updating the entire work programme of the United Nations Secretariat. The reform report is entitled: Mandating and Delivering: Analysis and Recommendations to Facilitate the Review of Mandates.[36] Regarding the UN Human Rights Council, Annan said "declining credibility" had "cast a shadow on the reputation of the United Nations system. Unless we re-make our human rights machinery, we may be unable to renew public confidence in the United Nations itself." However, he did believe that, despite its flaws, the council could do good.[37][38] In March 2000, Annan appointed the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations[39] to assess the shortcomings of the then existing system and to make specific and realistic recommendations for change.[40] The panel was composed of individuals experienced in conflict prevention, peacekeeping and peace-building. The report it produced, which became known as the Brahimi Report, after Chair of the Panel Lakhdar Brahimi, called for:[41] renewed political commitment on the part of Member States; significant institutional change; increased financial support. The Panel further noted that in order to be effective, UN peacekeeping operations must be properly resourced and equipped, and operate under clear, credible and achievable mandates.[41] In a letter transmitting the report to the General Assembly and Security Council, Annan stated that the Panel's recommendations were essential to make the United Nations truly credible as a force for peace.[42] Later that same year, the Security Council adopted several provisions relating to peacekeeping following the report, in Resolution 1327.[43] Millennium Development Goals[edit] In 2000, Annan issued a report entitled: "We the peoples: the role of the United Nations in the 21st century".[44] The report called for member states to "put people at the centre of everything we do.[45] No calling is more noble, and no responsibility greater, than that of enabling men, women and children, in cities and villages around the world, to make their lives better".[46]:7 In the final chapter of the report, Annan called to "free our fellow men and women from the abject and dehumanizing poverty in which more than 1 billion of them are currently confined".[46]:77 At the Millennium Summit in September 2000, national leaders adopted the Millennium Declaration, which was subsequently implemented by the United Nations Secretariat as the Millennium Development Goals in 2001.[47] United Nations Information Technology Service (UNITeS)[edit] Within the "We the Peoples" document, Annan suggested the establishment of a United Nations Information Technology Service (UNITeS), a consortium of high-tech volunteer corps, including NetCorps Canada and Net Corps America, which United Nations Volunteers would co-ordinate. In the Report of the high-level panel of experts on information and communication technology (22 May 2000) suggesting a UN ICT Task Force, the panel welcomed the establishment of UNITeS, and made suggestions on its configuration and implementation strategy, including that ICT4D volunteering opportunities make mobilizing "national human resources" (local ICT experts) within developing countries a priority, for both men and women. The initiative was launched at the United Nations Volunteers and was active from February 2001 to February 2005. Initiative staff and volunteers participated in the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) in Geneva in December 2003.[48] The United Nations Global Compact[edit] In an address to The World Economic Forum on 31 January 1999, Secretary-General Annan argued that the "goals of the United Nations and those of business can, indeed, be mutually supportive" and proposed that the private sector and the United Nations initiate "a global compact of shared values and principles, which will give a human face to the global market".[49] On 26 July 2000, the United Nations Global Compact was officially launched at UN headquarters in New York. It is a principle-based framework for businesses which aims to "Catalyse actions in support of broader UN goals, such as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)".[50] The Compact established ten core principles in the areas of human rights, labour, the environment and anti-corruption, and under the Compact, companies commit to the ten principles and are brought together with UN agencies, labour groups and civil society to effectively implement them. Establishment of The Global Fund[edit] Towards the end of the 1990s, increased awareness of the destructive potential of epidemics such as HIV/AIDS pushed public health issues to the top of the global development agenda. In April 2001, Annan issued a five-point "Call to Action" to address the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Stating it was a "personal priority", Annan proposed the establishment of a Global AIDS and Health Fund, "dedicated to the battle against HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases"[51] to stimulate the increased international spending needed to help developing countries confront the HIV/AIDS crisis. In June of that year, the General Assembly of the United Nations committed to the creation of such a fund during a special session on AIDS,[52] and the permanent secretariat of the Global Fund was subsequently established in January 2002.[53] Responsibility to Protect[edit] Following the failure of Annan and the International Community to intervene in the genocide in Rwanda and in Srebrenica, Annan asked whether the international community had an obligation in such situations to intervene to protect civilian populations. In a speech to the General Assembly on 20 September 1999 "to address the prospects for human security and intervention in the next century,"[54] Annan argued that individual sovereignty—the protections afforded by the Declaration of Human Rights and the Charter of the UN—was being strengthened, while the notion of state sovereignty was being redefined by globalization and international co-operation. As a result, the UN and its member states had to consider a willingness to act to prevent conflict and civilian suffering,[55] a dilemma between "two concepts of sovereignty" that Annan also presented in a preceding article in The Economist, on 16 September 1999.[56] In September 2001 the Canadian government established an ad-hoc committee to address this balance between state sovereignty and humanitarian intervention. The International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty published its final report in 2001, which focused on not on the right of states to intervene but a responsibility to protect populations at risk. The report moved beyond the question of military intervention, arguing that a range of diplomatic and humanitarian actions could also be utilized to protect civilian populations.[57] In 2005, Annan included the doctrine of "Responsibility to Protect" in his report Larger Freedom.[57] When that report was endorsed by the UN General Assembly, it amounted to the first formal endorsement by UN Member States of the doctrine of Responsibility to Protect.[58] Iraq[edit] In the years after 1998 when UNSCOM was expelled by the government of Saddam Hussein and during the Iraq disarmament crisis, in which the United States blamed UNSCOM and former IAEA director Hans Blix for failing to properly disarm Iraq, former UNSCOM chief weapons inspector Scott Ritter blamed Annan for being slow and ineffective in enforcing Security Council resolutions on Iraq and was overtly submissive to the demands of the Clinton administration for regime removal and inspection of sites, often Presidential palaces, that were not mandated in any resolution and were of questionable intelligence value, severely hampering UNSCOM's ability to co-operate with the Iraqi government and contributed to their expulsion from the country.[59][60] Ritter also claimed that Annan regularly interfered with the work of the inspectors and diluted the chain of command by trying to micromanage all of the activities of UNSCOM, which caused intelligence processing (and the resulting inspections) to be backed up and caused confusion with the Iraqis as to who was in charge and as a result, they generally refused to take orders from Ritter or Rolf Ekéus without explicit approval from Annan, which could have taken days, if not weeks. He later believed that Annan was oblivious to the fact the Iraqis took advantage of this in order to delay inspections. He claimed that on one occasion, Annan refused to implement a no-notice inspection of the SSO headquarters and instead tried to negotiate access, but the negotiation ended up taking nearly six weeks, giving the Iraqis more than enough time to clean out the site.[61] During the build-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Annan called on the United States and the United Kingdom not to invade without the support of the United Nations. In a September 2004 interview on the BBC, when questioned about the legal authority for the invasion, Annan said he believed it was not in conformity with the UN charter and was illegal.[62][63] Other diplomatic activities[edit] In 1998, Annan was deeply involved in supporting the transition from military to civilian rule in Nigeria. The following year, he supported the efforts of East Timor to secure independence from Indonesia. In 2000, he was responsible for certifying Israel 's withdrawal from Lebanon, and in 2006, he led talks in New York between the presidents of Cameroon and Nigeria which led to a settlement of the dispute between the two countries over the Bakassi peninsula.[64] Annan and Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad disagreed sharply on Iran's nuclear program, on an Iranian exhibition of cartoons mocking the Holocaust, and on the then upcoming International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust, an Iranian Holocaust denial conference in 2006.[65] During a visit to Iran instigated by continued Iranian uranium enrichment, Annan said "I think the tragedy of the Holocaust is an undeniable historical fact and we should really accept that fact and teach people what happened in World War II and ensure it is never repeated."[65] Annan supported sending a UN peacekeeping mission to Darfur, Sudan.[66] He worked with the government of Sudan to accept a transfer of power from the African Union peacekeeping mission to a UN one.[67] Annan also worked with several Arab and Muslim countries on women's rights and other topics.[68] Beginning in 1998, Annan convened an annual UN "Security Council Retreat" with the 15 States' representatives of the Council. It was held at the Rockefeller Brothers Fund (RBF) Conference Center at the Rockefeller family estate in Pocantico Hills, New York, and was sponsored by both the RBF and the UN.[69] Lubbers sexual-harassment investigation[edit] In June 2004, Annan was given a copy of the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) report on the complaint brought by four female workers against Ruud Lubbers, UN High Commissioner for Refugees, for sexual harassment, abuse of authority, and retaliation. The report also reviewed a long-serving staff member's allegations of sexual harassment and misconduct against Werner Blatter, Director of UNHCR Personnel. The investigation found Lubbers guilty of sexual harassment; no mention was made publicly of the other charge against a senior official, or two subsequent complaints filed later that year. In the course of the official investigation, Lubbers wrote a letter which some considered was a threat to the female worker who had brought the charges.[70] On 15 July 2004, Annan cleared Lubbers of the accusations, saying they were not substantial enough legally.[71] The internal UN-OIOS report on Lubbers was leaked, and sections accompanied by an article by Kate Holt were published in a British newspaper. In February 2005, Lubbers resigned as head of the UN refugee agency, saying that he wanted to relieve political pressure on Annan.[72] Oil-for-Food scandal[edit] In December 2004, reports surfaced that the Secretary-General's son Kojo Annan received payments from the Swiss company Cotecna Inspection SA, which had won a lucrative contract under the UN Oil-for-Food Programme. Kofi Annan called for an investigation to look into the allegations.[73] On 11 November 2005, The Sunday Times agreed to apologise and pay a substantial sum in damages to Kojo Annan, accepting that the allegations were untrue.[74] Annan appointed the Independent Inquiry Committee,[75] which was led by former US Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker,[76] then the director of the United Nations Association of the US. In his first interview with the Inquiry Committee, Annan denied having had a meeting with Cotecna. Later in the inquiry, he recalled that he had met with Cotecna's chief executive Elie-Georges Massey twice. In a final report issued on 27 October, the committee found insufficient evidence to indict Kofi Annan on any illegal actions, but did find fault with Benon Sevan, an Armenian-Cypriot national who had worked for the UN for about 40 years. Appointed by Annan to the Oil-For-Food role, Sevan repeatedly asked Iraqis for allocations of oil to the African Middle East Petroleum Company. Sevan's behavior was "ethically improper", Volcker said to reporters. Sevan repeatedly denied the charges and argued that he was being made a "scapegoat".[77] The Volcker report was highly critical of the UN management structure and the Security Council oversight. It strongly recommended a new position be established of Chief Operating Officer (COO), to handle the fiscal and administrative responsibilities then under the Secretary-General's office. The report listed the companies, both Western and Middle Eastern, which had benefited illegally from the program.[76] Nobel Peace Prize[edit] See also: List of honours and awards received by Kofi Annan In 2001, its centennial year, the Nobel Committee decided that the Peace Prize was to be divided between the UN and Annan. They were awarded the Peace Prize "for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world,"[2] having revitalized the UN and for having given priority to human rights. The Nobel Committee also recognized his commitment to the struggle to containing the spread of HIV in Africa and his declared opposition to international terrorism.[78] Relations between the United States and the United Nations[edit] Annan with US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice in 2006 Annan defended his deputy Secretary-General Mark Malloch Brown,[79] who openly criticized the United States in a speech on 6 June 2006: "[T]he prevailing practice of seeking to use the UN almost by stealth as a diplomatic tool while failing to stand up for it against its domestic critics is simply not sustainable. You will lose the UN one way or another. [...] [That] the US is constructively engaged with the UN [...] is not well known or understood, in part because much of the public discourse that reaches the US heartland has been largely abandoned to its loudest detractors such as Rush Limbaugh and Fox News."[80] Malloch later said his talk was a "sincere and constructive critique of U.S. policy toward the U.N. by a friend and admirer."[81] The talk was unusual because it violated unofficial policy of not having top officials publicly criticize member nations.[81] The interim U.S. ambassador John R. Bolton, appointed by President George W. Bush, was reported to have told Annan on the phone: "I've known you since 1989 and I'm telling you this is the worst mistake by a senior UN official that I have seen in that entire time."[81] Observers from other nations supported Malloch's view that conservative politicians in the U.S. prevented many citizens from understanding the benefits of U.S. involvement in the UN.[82] Farewell addresses[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Secretary-General Kofi Annan's address at the Truman Presidential Museum & Library on 11 December 2006 External video  Farewell Address by Kori Annan, December 11, 2006, C-SPAN On 19 September 2006, Annan gave a farewell address to world leaders gathered at the UN headquarters in New York, in anticipation of his retirement on 31 December. In the speech he outlined three major problems of "an unjust world economy, world disorder, and widespread contempt for human rights and the rule of law", which he believed "have not resolved, but sharpened" during his time as Secretary-General. He also pointed to violence in Africa, and the Arab–Israeli conflict as two major issues warranting attention.[83] On 11 December 2006, in his final speech as Secretary-General, delivered at the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library in Independence, Missouri, Annan recalled Truman's leadership in the founding of the United Nations. He called for the United States to return to President Truman's multilateralist foreign policies, and to follow Truman's credo that "the responsibility of the great states is to serve and not dominate the peoples of the world". He also said that the United States must maintain its commitment to human rights, "including in the struggle against terrorism."[84][85] Online access to Kofi Annan's archives[edit] The United Nations Archives and Records Management Section (UNARMS) provides full text access to Kofi Annan's declassified archives while he served as Secretary-General of the United Nations (1997-2006) Search Kofi Annan's Archives Post-UN career[edit] After his service as UN Secretary-General, Annan took up residence in Geneva and worked in a leading capacity on various international humanitarian endeavors.[86] Kofi Annan Foundation[edit] Main article: Kofi Annan Foundation In 2007, Annan established the Kofi Annan Foundation, an independent, not-for-profit organization that works to promote better global governance and strengthen the capacities of people and countries to achieve a fairer, more peaceful world.[87] The organisation was founded on the principles that fair and peaceful societies rest on three pillars: Peace and Security, Sustainable Development, and Human Rights and the Rule of Law, and they have made it their mission to mobilise the leadership and the political resolve needed to tackle threats to these three pillars ranging from violent conflict to flawed elections and climate change, with the aim of achieving a fairer, more peaceful world.[88] The Foundation provides the analytical, communication and co-ordination capacities needed to ensure that these objectives are achieved. Annan's contribution to peace worldwide is delivered through mediation, political mentoring, advocacy and advice. Through his engagement, Annan aimed to strengthen local and international conflict resolution capabilities. The Foundation provides the analytical and logistical support to facilitate this in co-operation with relevant local, regional and international actors.[89] The Foundation works mainly through private diplomacy, where Annan provided informal counsel and participated in discreet diplomatic initiatives to avert or resolve crises by applying his experience and inspirational leadership. He was often asked to intercede in crises, sometimes as an impartial independent mediator, sometimes as a special envoy of the international community. In recent years he had provided such counsel to Burkina Faso, Kenya, Myanmar, Senegal, Iraq and Colombia.[90] Kenya National Dialogue and Reconciliation Process (KNDR)[edit] Following the outbreak of violence during the 2007 Presidential elections in Kenya, the African Union established a Panel of Eminent African Personalities to assist in finding a peaceful solution to the crisis.[91] The panel, headed by Annan, managed to convince the two principal parties to the conflict, President Mwai Kibaki's Party of National Unity (PNU) and Raila Odinga's Orange Democratic Movement (ODM), to participate in the Kenya National Dialogue and Reconciliation Process (KNDR).[91] Over the course of 41 days of negotiations, several agreements regarding taking actions to stop the violence and remedying its consequences were signed. On 28 February, President Mwai Kibaki and Raila Odinga signed a coalition government agreement.[92][93] Joint Special Envoy for Syria[edit] Main article: Kofi Annan peace plan for Syria Annan meeting with former Iranian President, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani On 23 February 2012, Annan was appointed as the UN-Arab League envoy to Syria, in an attempt to end the civil war taking place.[6] He developed a six-point plan for peace:[94] commit to work with the Envoy in an inclusive Syrian-led political process to address the legitimate aspirations and concerns of the Syrian people, and, to this end, commit to appoint an empowered interlocutor when invited to do so by the Envoy; commit to stop the fighting and achieve urgently an effective United Nations supervised cessation of armed violence in all its forms by all parties to protect civilians and stabilise the country. To this end, the Syrian government should immediately cease troop movements towards, and end the use of heavy weapons in, population centres, and begin pullback of military concentrations in and around population centres. As these actions are being taken on the ground, the Syrian government should work with the Envoy to bring about a sustained cessation of armed violence in all its forms by all parties with an effective United Nations supervision mechanism. Similar commitments would be sought by the Envoy from the opposition and all relevant elements to stop the fighting and work with him to bring about a sustained cessation of armed violence in all its forms by all parties with an effective United Nations supervision mechanism; ensure timely provision of humanitarian assistance to all areas affected by the fighting, and to this end, as immediate steps, to accept and implement a daily two-hour humanitarian pause and to co-ordinate exact time and modalities of the daily pause through an efficient mechanism, including at local level; intensify the pace and scale of release of arbitrarily detained persons, including especially vulnerable categories of persons, and persons involved in peaceful political activities, provide without delay through appropriate channels a list of all places in which such persons are being detained, immediately begin organizing access to such locations and through appropriate channels respond promptly to all written requests for information, access or release regarding such persons; ensure freedom of movement throughout the country for journalists and a non-discriminatory visa policy for them; respect freedom of association and the right to demonstrate peacefully as legally guaranteed. On 2 August, he resigned as UN and Arab League joint special envoy to Syria,[95] citing the intransigence of both the Assad government and the rebels, as well as the stalemate on the Security Council as preventing any peaceful resolution of the situation.[96] Annan also stated that the lack of international unity and ineffective diplomacy among the world leaders had made the peaceful resolution in Syria an impossible task.[97] Global Commission on Elections, Democracy and Security[edit] Annan served as the Chair of the Global Commission on Elections, Democracy and Security. The Commission was launched in May 2011 as a joint initiative of the Kofi Annan Foundation and the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. It comprised 12 eminent individuals from around the world, including Ernesto Zedillo, Martti Ahtisaari, Madeleine Albright and Amartya Sen, and aimed to highlight the importance of the integrity of elections to achieving a more secure, prosperous and stable world. The Commission released its final report: Democracy, a Strategy to Improve the Integrity of Elections Worldwide, in September 2012. Rakhine Commission (Myanmar)[edit] In September 2016, Annan was asked to lead the Advisory Commission on Rakhine State (in Myanmar)[98][99][100][101] – an impoverished region beset by ethnic conflict and extreme sectarian violence, particularly by Myanmar's Buddhist majority against the Rohingya Muslim minority, further targeted by government forces.[102][103][104][105] The commission, widely known simply as the "Annan Commission", was opposed by many Myanmar Buddhists as unwelcome interference in their relations with the Rohingya.[98] When the Annan commission released its final report,[100] the week of 24 August 2017, with recommendations unpopular with all sides, violence exploded in the Rohingya conflict – the largest and bloodiest humanitarian disaster in the region in decades – driving most of the Rohingya from Myanmar.[105][104][106] Annan attempted to engage the United Nations to resolve the matter,[107] but failed. Annan died a week before the first anniversary of the report, shortly after an announcement by a replacement commission that it would not "point fingers" at the guilty parties – leading to widespread concern that the new commission was just a sham to protect culpable Myanmar government officials and citizens from accountability.[101][108][106][109] In 2018, before Annan's death, Myanmar's civilian government, under the direction of State Councilor Aung San Suu Kyi, made a gesture of acceptance of the Annan commission's recommendations by convening another board – the Advisory Board for the Committee for Implementation of the Recommendations on Rakhine State – ostensibly to implement the Annan commission's proposed reforms, but never actually implemented them. Some of the international representatives resigned – notably the panel's Secretary, Thailand's former foreign minister Surakiart Sathirathai, and former U.S. ambassador to the U.N. Bill Richardson – decrying the "implementation" committee as ineffective, or a "whitewash."[99][110] Other activities[edit] At the South Sudanese independence referendum, 2011, with former US president Jimmy Carter Corporate boards In March 2011,[111] Annan became a member of the Advisory Board for Investcorp Bank B. S. C.[112] Europe,[113] an international private equity firm and sovereign wealth fund owned by the United Arab Emirates. He held the position until 2018. Annan became member of the Global Advisory Board of Macro Advisory Partners LLP, Risk and strategic consulting firm based in London and New York, for business, finance and government decision-makers, with some operations related to Investcorp.[114] Non-profit organizations In addition to the above, Annan also became involved with several organizations with both global and African focuses, including the following: United Nations Foundation, member of the board of directors (2008–2018)[115] University of Ghana, chancellor (2008–2018)[116] School of International and Public Affairs of Columbia University, global fellow (2009–2018)[117] The Committee on Global Thought at Columbia University, fellow[118] Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy at the National University of Singapore (NUS), Li Ka Shing Professor (2009–2018)[119] Global Centre for Pluralism, member of the board of directors (2010–2018)[120] Mo Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership, chairman of the prize committee (2007–2018)[121] Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), chairman (2007–2018)[122] Global Humanitarian Forum, founder and president (2007–2018)[123] Global Commission on Drug Policy, founding commissioner.[124] The commission had declared in a 2011 report that the war on drugs was a failure.[125] Annan believed that, since drug use represents a health risk, it should be regulated, comparing it to the regulation of tobacco which reduced smoking in many countries.[126] Annan during the Munich Security Conference 2018 Annan served as Chair of The Elders, a group of independent global leaders who work together on peace and human rights issues.[127][128] In November 2008, Annan and fellow Elders Jimmy Carter and Graça Machel attempted to travel to Zimbabwe to make a first-hand assessment of the humanitarian situation in the country. Refused entry, the Elders instead carried out their assessment from Johannesburg, where they met Zimbabwe- and South Africa-based leaders from politics, business, international organisations, and civil society.[129] In May 2011, following months of political violence in Côte d'Ivoire, Annan travelled to the country with Elders Desmond Tutu and Mary Robinson to encourage national reconciliation.[130] On 16 October 2014, Annan attended the One Young World Summit in Dublin. During a session with fellow Elder Mary Robinson, Annan encouraged 1,300 young leaders from 191 countries to lead on intergenerational issues such as climate change and the need for action to take place now, not tomorrow.[131][132] "We don't have to wait to act. The action must be now. You will come across people who think we should start tomorrow. Even for those who believe action should begin tomorrow, remind them tomorrow begins now, tomorrow begins today, so let's all move forward."[133] Annan chaired the Africa Progress Panel (APP), a group of ten distinguished individuals who advocate at the highest levels for equitable and sustainable development in Africa. As Chair, he facilitates coalition building to leverage and broker knowledge, in addition to convening decision-makers to influence policy and create lasting change in Africa. Every year, the Panel releases a report, the Africa Progress Report, which outlines an issue of immediate importance to the continent and suggests a set of associated policies. In 2014, the Africa Progress Report highlighted the potential of African fisheries, agriculture, and forests to drive economic development.[134] The 2015 report explores the role of climate change and the potential of renewable energy investments in determining Africa's economic future.[135] Memoir[edit] On 4 September 2012, Annan with Nader Mousavizadeh wrote a memoir, Interventions: A Life in War and Peace.[136] Published by Penguin Press, the book has been described as a "personal biography of global statecraft".[137] Personal life[edit] In 1965, Kofi Annan married Titi Alakija, a Nigerian woman from an aristocratic family. Several years later they had a daughter, Ama, and later a son, Kojo. The couple separated in the late 1970s,[138] and divorced in 1983.[10] In 1984, Annan married Nane Lagergren [sv; et; ru], a Swedish lawyer at the UN and a maternal half-niece of diplomat Raoul Wallenberg.[139] She has a daughter, Nina, from a previous marriage.[140] His brother, Kobina Annan served as Ghana’s ambassador to Morocco.[141] Death and state funeral[edit] Annan died on the morning of 18 August 2018 in Bern, Switzerland, at the age of 80 after a short illness.[142][143] António Guterres, the current UN Secretary-General, said that "Kofi Annan was a champion for peace and a guiding force for good."[144][142] The body of Kofi Annan was returned to his native Ghana from Geneva in a brief and solemn ceremony at the Kotoka International Airport in Accra, on 10 September 2018.[145] His coffin, draped in the blue UN flag, was accompanied by his widow Nane Annan, his children and senior diplomats from the international organisation.[145][146] On 13 September 2018, a state funeral was held for Annan in Ghana at the Accra International Conference Centre.[147] The ceremony was attended by several political leaders from across Africa as well as Ghanaian traditional rulers, European royalty and dignitaries from the international community, including the U.N. Secretary-General Antonio Guterres.[148] Prior to the funeral service, his body lay in state in the foyer of the same venue, from 11–12 September 2018.[149] A private burial followed the funeral service at the new Military Cemetery at Burma Camp, with full military honours – the sounding of the Last Post by army buglers and a 17-gun salute.[150][151][152][153] Memorials and legacy[edit] The United Nations Postal Administration released a new stamp in memory of Kofi Annan on 31 May 2019. Annan's portrait on the stamp was designed by artist Martin Mörck.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofi_Annan

Section 20: Morihei Ueshiba

Morihei Ueshiba (植芝 盛平, Ueshiba Morihei, December 14, 1883 – April 26, 1969) was a Japanese martial artist and founder of the martial art of aikido. He is often referred to as "the founder" Kaiso (開祖) or Ōsensei (大先生/翁先生), "Great Teacher". The son of a landowner from Tanabe, Ueshiba studied a number of martial arts in his youth, and served in the Japanese Army during the Russo-Japanese War. After being discharged in 1907, he moved to Hokkaidō as the head of a pioneer settlement; here he met and studied with Takeda Sōkaku, the founder of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu. On leaving Hokkaido in 1919, Ueshiba joined the Ōmoto-kyō movement, a Shinto sect, in Ayabe, where he served as a martial arts instructor and opened his first dojo. He accompanied the head of the Ōmoto-kyō group, Onisaburo Deguchi, on an expedition to Mongolia in 1924, where they were captured by Chinese troops and returned to Japan. The following year, he had a profound spiritual experience, stating that, "a golden spirit sprang up from the ground, veiled my body, and changed my body into a golden one." After this experience, his martial arts skill appeared to be greatly increased. Ueshiba moved to Tokyo in 1926, where he set up the Aikikai Hombu Dojo. By now he was comparatively famous in martial arts circles, and taught at this dojo and others around Japan, including in several military academies. In the aftermath of World War II the Hombu dojo was temporarily closed, but Ueshiba had by this point left Tokyo and retired to Iwama, and he continued training at the dojo he had set up there. From the end of the war until the 1960s, he worked to promote aikido throughout Japan and abroad. He died from liver cancer in 1969. After Ueshiba's death, aikido continued to be promulgated by his students (many of whom became noted martial artists in their own right). It is now practiced around the world.

Tanabe, 1883–1912[edit] Morihei Ueshiba was born in Nishinotani village (now part of the city of Tanabe), Wakayama Prefecture, Japan, on December 14, 1883, the fourth child (and only son) born to Yoroku Ueshiba and his wife Yuki.[1]:3[2]:49 The young Ueshiba was raised in a somewhat privileged setting. His father Yoroku was a wealthy gentleman farmer and minor politician, being an elected member of the Nishinotani village council for 22 consecutive years. His mother Yuki was from the Itokawa clan, a prominent local family who could trace their lineage back to the Heian period.[2]:52–53 Ueshiba was a rather weak, sickly child and bookish in his inclinations. At a young age his father encouraged him to take up sumo wrestling and swimming and entertained him with stories of his great-grandfather Kichiemon, who was considered a very strong samurai in his era. The need for such strength was further emphasized when the young Ueshiba witnessed his father being attacked by followers of a competing politician.[3]:3 A major influence on Ueshiba's early education was his elementary schoolteacher Tasaburo Nasu, who was a Shinto priest and who introduced Ueshiba to the religion.[2]:59 At the age of six Ueshiba was sent to study at the Jizōderu Temple, but had little interest in the rote learning of Confucian education. However, his schoolmaster Mitsujo Fujimoto was also a priest of Shingon Buddhism, and taught the young Ueshiba some of the esoteric chants and ritual observances of the sect, which Ueshiba found intriguing. His interest in Buddhism was sufficiently great that his mother considered enrolling him in the priesthood, but his father Yoroku vetoed the idea.[2]:57 Ueshiba went to Tanabe Higher Elementary School and then to Tanabe Prefectural Middle School, but left formal education in his early teens, enrolling instead at a private abacus academy, the Yoshida Institute, to study accountancy.[2]:61 On graduating from the academy, he worked at a local tax office for a few months, but the job did not suit him and in 1901 he left for Tokyo, funded by his father. Ueshiba Trading, the stationery business which he opened there, was short-lived; unhappy with life in the capital, he returned to Tanabe less than a year later after suffering a bout of beri-beri. Shortly thereafter he married his childhood acquaintance Hatsu Itokawa.[4][5] In 1903, Ueshiba was called up for military service. He failed the initial physical examination, being shorter than the regulation 5 feet 2 inches (1.57 m). To overcome this, he stretched his spine by attaching heavy weights to his legs and suspending himself from tree branches; when he re-took the physical exam he had increased his height by the necessary half-inch to pass.[4] He was assigned to the Osaka Fourth Division, 37th Regiment, and was promoted to corporal of the 61st Wakayama regiment by the following year; after serving on the front lines during the Russo-Japanese War he was promoted to sergeant.[2]:70 He was discharged in 1907, and again returned to his father's farm in Tanabe.[5] Here he befriended the writer and philosopher Minakata Kumagusu, becoming involved with Minakata's opposition to the Meiji government's Shrine Consolidation Policy.[4] He and his wife had their first child, a daughter named Matsuko, in 1911.[6]:3 Ueshiba studied several martial arts during his early life, and was renowned for his physical strength during his youth.[7] During his sojourn in Tokyo he studied Kitō-ryū jujutsu under Takisaburo Tobari, and briefly enrolled in a school teaching Shinkage-ryū.[2]:64–65 His training in Gotō-ha Yagyū-ryu under Masakatsu Nakai was sporadic due to his military service, although he was granted a diploma in the art within a few years.[4] In 1901 he received some instruction from Tozawa Tokusaburōin in Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū jujutsu and he studied judo with Kiyoichi Takagi in Tanabe in 1911, after his father had a dojo built on the family compound to encourage his son's training.[5] In 1907, after his return from the war, he was also presented with a certificate of enlightenment (shingon inkyo) by his childhood teacher Mitsujo Fujimoto.[2]:66 Hokkaidō, 1912–1920[edit] In the early part of the 20th century, the prefectural government of Hokkaidō, Japan's northernmost island, were offering various grants and incentives for mainland Japanese groups willing to relocate there. At the time, Hokkaidō was still largely unsettled by the Japanese, being occupied primarily by the indigenous Ainu. In 1910, Ueshiba travelled to Hokkaidō in the company of his acquaintance Denzaburo Kurahashi, who had lived on the northern island before. His intent was to scout out a propitious location for a new settlement, and he found the site at Shirataki suitable for his plans. Despite the hardships he suffered on this journey (which included getting lost in snowstorms several times and an incident in which he nearly drowned in a freezing river), Ueshiba returned to Tanabe filled with enthusiasm for the project, and began recruiting families to join him. He became the leader of the Kishū Settlement Group, a collective of eighty-five pioneers who intended to settle in the Shirataki district and live as farmers; the group founded the village of Yubetsu (later Shirataki village) in August, 1912.[2]:83–87 Much of the funding for this project came from Ueshiba's father and his brothers-in-law Zenzo and Koshiro Inoue. Zenzo's son Noriaki was also a member of the settlement group.[8] Poor soil conditions and bad weather led to crop failures during the first three years of the project, but the group still managed to cultivate mint and farm livestock. The burgeoning timber industry provided a boost to the settlement's economy, and by 1918 there were over 500 families residing there.[2]:101 A fire in 1917 razed the entire village, leading to the departure of around twenty families. Ueshiba was attending a meeting over railway construction around 50 miles away, but on learning of the fire travelled back the entire distance on foot. He was elected to the village council that year, and took a prominent role in leading the reconstruction efforts.[2]:101–103 In the summer of 1918, Hatsu gave birth to their first son, Takemori.[4][5] The young Ueshiba met Takeda Sōkaku, the founder of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, at the Hisada Inn in Engaru, in March 1915. Ueshiba was deeply impressed with Takeda's martial art, and despite being on an important mission for his village at the time, abandoned his journey to spend the next month studying with Takeda.[2]:94 He requested formal instruction and began studying Takeda's style of jūjutsu in earnest, going so far as to construct a dojo at his home and inviting his new teacher to be a permanent house guest.[9]:22[10] He received a kyōju dairi certificate, a teaching license, for the system from Takeda in 1922, when Takeda visited him in Ayabe.[9]:36 Takeda also gave him a Yagyū Shinkage-ryū sword transmission scroll.[11] Ueshiba then became a representative of Daitō-ryū, toured with Takeda as a teaching assistant and taught the system to others.[12][13] The relationship between Ueshiba and Takeda was a complicated one. Ueshiba was an extremely dedicated student, dutifully attending to his teacher's needs and displaying great respect. However, Takeda overshadowed him throughout his early martial arts career, and Ueshiba's own students recorded the need to address what they referred to as "the Takeda problem".[12][14]:137–139[15] Ayabe, 1920–1927[edit] In November 1919, Ueshiba learned that his father Yoroku was ill, and was not expected to survive. Leaving most of his possessions to Takeda, Ueshiba left Shirataki with the apparent intention of returning to Tanabe to visit his ailing parent. En route he made a detour to Ayabe, near Kyoto, intending to visit Onisaburo Deguchi, the spiritual leader of the Ōmoto-kyō religion (Ueshiba's nephew Noriaki Inoue had already joined the religion and may have recommended it to his uncle).[8] Ueshiba stayed at the Ōmoto-kyō headquarters for several days, and met with Deguchi, who told him that, "There is nothing to worry about with your father".[2]:113 On his return to Tanabe, Ueshiba found that Yoroku had died. Criticised by family and friends for arriving too late to see his father, Ueshiba went into the mountains with a sword and practised solo sword exercises for several days; this almost led to his arrest when the police were informed of a sword-wielding madman on the loose.[2]:116 Within a few months, Ueshiba was back in Ayabe, having decided to become a full-time student of Ōmoto-kyō. In 1920 he moved his entire family, including his mother, to the Ōmoto compound; at the same time he also purchased enough rice to feed himself and his family for several years.[2]:117 That same year, Deguchi asked Ueshiba to become the group's martial arts instructor, and a dojo—the first of several that Ueshiba was to lead—was constructed on the centre's grounds. Ueshiba also taught Takeda's Daitō-ryū in neighbouring Hyōgo Prefecture during this period.[16] His second son, Kuniharu, was born in 1920 in Ayabe, but died from illness the same year, along with three-year-old Takemori.[9]:32–34 Takeda visited Ueshiba in Ayabe to provide instruction, although he was not a follower of Ōmoto and did not get along with Deguchi, which led to a cooling of the relationship between him and Ueshiba.[15] Ueshiba continued to teach his martial art under the name "Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu", at the behest of his teacher.[17] However, Deguchi encouraged Ueshiba to create his own style of martial arts, "Ueshiba-ryū", and sent many Ōmoto followers to study at the dojo. He also brought Ueshiba into the highest levels of the group's bureaucracy, making Ueshiba his executive assistant and putting him in charge of the Showa Seinenkai (Ōmoto-kyō's national youth organisation) and the Ōmoto Shobotai, a volunteer fire service.[2]:118, 128, 137 His close relationship with Deguchi introduced Ueshiba to various members of Japan's far-right; members of the ultranationalist group the Sakurakai would hold meetings at Ueshiba's dojo, and he developed a friendship with the philosopher Shūmei Ōkawa during this period, as well as meeting with Nisshō Inoue and Kozaburō Tachibana. Deguchi also offered Ueshiba's services as a bodyguard to Kingoro Hashimoto, the Sakurakai's founder.[14]:142–149[18] Ueshiba's commitment to the goal of world peace, stressed by many biographers, must be viewed in the light of these relationships and his Ōmoto-kyō beliefs. His association with the extreme right-wing is understandable when one considers that Ōmoto-kyō's view of world peace was of a benevolent dictatorship by the Emperor of Japan, with other nations being subjugated under Japanese rule.[19]:638–639 In 1921, in an event known as the First Ōmoto-kyō Incident (大本事件, Ōmoto jiken), the Japanese authorities raided the compound, destroying the main buildings on the site and arresting Deguchi on charges of lèse-majesté.[20] Ueshiba's dojo was undamaged and over the following two years he worked closely with Deguchi to reconstruct the group's centre, becoming heavily involved in farming work and serving as the group's "Caretaker of Forms", a role which placed him in charge of overseeing Ōmoto's move towards self-sufficiency.[2]:154 His son Kisshomaru was born in the summer of 1921.[5][9]:32–34 Three years later, in 1924, Deguchi led a small group of Ōmoto-kyō disciples, including Ueshiba, on a journey to Mongolia at the invitation of retired naval captain Yutaro Yano and his associates within the ultra-nationalist Black Dragon Society. Deguchi's intent was to establish a new religious kingdom in Mongolia, and to this end he had distributed propaganda suggesting that he was the reincarnation of Genghis Khan.[21] Allied with the Mongolian bandit Lu Zhankui, Deguchi's group were arrested in Tongliao by the Chinese authorities—fortunately for Ueshiba, whilst Lu and his men were executed by firing squad, the Japanese group were released into the custody of the Japanese consul. They were returned under guard to Japan, where Deguchi was imprisoned for breaking the terms of his bail.[9]:37–45 During this expedition Ueshiba was given the Chinese alias Wang Shou-gao, rendered in Japanese as "Moritaka" – he was reportedly very taken with this name and continued to use it intermittently for the rest of his life.[2]:163 After returning to Ayabe, Ueshiba began a regimen of spiritual training, regularly retreating to the mountains or performing misogi in the Nachi Falls. As his prowess as a martial artist increased, his fame began to spread. He was challenged by many established martial artists, some of whom later became his students after being defeated by him. In the autumn of 1925 he was asked to give a demonstration of his art in Tokyo, at the behest of Admiral Isamu Takeshita; one of the spectators was Yamamoto Gonnohyōe, who requested that Ueshiba stay in the capital to instruct the Imperial Guard in his martial art. After a couple of weeks, however, Ueshiba took issue with several government officials who voiced concerns about his connections to Deguchi; he cancelled the training and returned to Ayabe.[9]:45–49 Tokyo, 1927–1942[edit] In 1926 Takeshita invited Ueshiba to visit Tokyo again. Ueshiba relented and returned to the capital, but while residing there was stricken with a serious illness. Deguchi visited his ailing student and, concerned for his health, commanded Ueshiba to return to Ayabe. The appeal of returning increased after Ueshiba was questioned by the police following his meeting with Deguchi; the authorities were keeping the Ōmoto-kyō leader under close surveillance. Angered at the treatment he had received, Ueshiba went back to Ayabe again. Six months later, this time with Deguchi's blessing, he and his family moved permanently to Tokyo. This move allowed Ueshiba to teach politicians, high-ranking military personnel, and members of the Imperial household; suddenly he was no longer an obscure provincial martial artist, but a sensei to some of Japan's most important citizens.[19]:134 Arriving in October 1927, the Ueshiba family set up home in the Shirokane district. The building proved too small to house the growing number of aikido students, and so the Ueshibas moved to larger premises, first in Mita district, then in Takanawa, and finally to a purpose-built hall in Shinjuku. This last location, originally named the Kobukan (皇武館), would eventually become the Aikikai Hombu Dojo. During its construction, Ueshiba rented a property nearby, where he was visited by Kanō Jigorō, the founder of judo.[9]:50–53 During this period, Ueshiba was invited to teach at a number of military institutes, due to his close personal relationships with key figures in the military (among them Sadao Araki, the Japanese Minister of War[19]:639). He accepted an invitation from Admiral Sankichi Takahashi to be the martial arts instructor at the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy,[2]:201 and also taught at the Nakano Spy School, although aikido was later judged to be too technical for the students there and karate was adopted instead.[14]:154–155 He also became a visiting instructor at the Imperial Japanese Army Academy after being challenged by (and defeating) General Makoto Miura, another student of Takeda Sōkaku's Daitō-ryū.[2]:207–208[19]:639 Takeda himself met Ueshiba for the last time around 1935, while Ueshiba was teaching at the Osaka headquarters of the Asahi Shimbun newspaper. Frustrated by the appearance of his teacher, who was openly critical of Ueshiba's martial arts and who appeared intent on taking over the classes there, Ueshiba left Osaka during the night, bowing to the residence in which Takeda was staying and thereafter avoiding all contact with him.[14]:139[19]:135 Between 1940 and 1942 he made several visits to Manchukuo (Japanese occupied Manchuria) where he was the principal martial arts instructor at Kenkoku University.[9]:63 Whilst in Manchuria, he met and defeated the sumo wrestler Tenryū Saburō during a demonstration.[22] The "Second Ōmoto Incident" in 1935 saw another government crackdown on Deguchi's sect, in which the Ayabe compound was destroyed and most of the group's leaders imprisoned. Although he had relocated to Tokyo, Ueshiba had retained links with the Ōmoto-kyō group (he had in fact helped Deguchi to establish a paramilitary branch of the sect only three years earlier[19]:134) and expected to be arrested as one of its senior members. However, he had a good relationship with the local police commissioner Kenji Tomita and the chief of police Gīchi Morita, both of whom had been his students. As a result, although he was taken in for interrogation, he was released without charge on Morita's authority.[2]:233–237 In 1932, Ueshiba's daughter Matsuko was married to the swordsman Kiyoshi Nakakura, who was adopted as Ueshiba's heir under the name Morihiro Ueshiba. The marriage ended after a few years, and Nakakura left the family in 1937. Ueshiba later designated his son Kisshomaru as the heir to his martial art.[23][19]:134 The 1930s saw Japan's invasion of mainland Asia and increased military activity in Europe. Ueshiba was concerned about the prospect of war, and became involved in a number of efforts to try and forestall the conflict that would eventually become World War II. He was part of a group, along with Shūmei Ōkawa and several wealthy Japanese backers, that tried to broker a deal with Harry Chandler to export aviation fuel from the United States to Japan (in contravention of the oil embargo that was currently in force), although this effort ultimately failed.[14]:156 In 1941 Ueshiba also undertook a secret diplomatic mission to China at the behest of Prince Fumimaro Konoe. The intended goal was a meeting with Chiang Kai-shek to establish peace talks, but Ueshiba was unable to meet with the Chinese leader, arriving too late to fulfil his mission.[2]:236–237 Iwama, 1942–1969[edit] The Aiki Shrine in Iwama From 1935 onwards, Ueshiba had been purchasing land in Iwama in Ibaraki Prefecture, and by the early 1940s had acquired around 17 acres (6.9 ha; 0.027 sq mi) of farmland there. In 1942, disenchanted with the war-mongering and political manoeuvring in the capital, he left Tokyo and moved to Iwama permanently, settling in a small farmer's cottage.[19]:639 Here he founded the Aiki Shuren Dojo, also known as the Iwama dojo, and the Aiki Shrine, a devotional shrine to the "Great Spirit of Aiki".[24][5][9]:55 During this time he travelled extensively in Japan, particularly in the Kansai region, teaching his aikido. Despite the prohibition on the teaching of martial arts after World War II, Ueshiba and his students continued to practice in secret at the Iwama dojo; the Hombu dojo in Tokyo was in any case being used as a refugee centre for citizens displaced by the severe firebombing. It was during this period that Ueshiba met and befriended Koun Nakanishi, an expert in kotodama. The study of kotodama was to become one of Ueshiba's passions in later life, and Nakanishi's work inspired Ueshiba's concept of takemusu aiki.[2]:267 The rural nature of his new home in Iwama allowed Ueshiba to concentrate on the second great passion of his life: farming. He had been born into a farming family and spent much of his life cultivating the land, from his settlement days in Hokkaidō to his work in Ayabe trying to make the Ōmoto-kyō compound self-sufficient. He viewed farming as a logical complement to martial arts; both were physically demanding and required single-minded dedication. Not only did his farming activities provide a useful cover for martial arts training under the government's restrictions, it also provided food for Ueshiba, his students and other local families at a time when food shortages were commonplace.[1]:18–19[19]:135 The government prohibition (on aikido, at least) was lifted in 1948 with the creation of the Aiki Foundation, established by the Japanese Ministry of Education with permission from the Occupation forces. The Hombu dojo re-opened the following year. After the war Ueshiba effectively retired from aikido.[25] He delegated most of the work of running the Hombu dojo and the Aiki Federation to his son Kisshomaru, and instead chose to spend much of his time in prayer, meditation, calligraphy and farming.[9]:66–69 He still travelled extensively to promote aikido, even visiting Hawaii in 1961.[4]:xix He also appeared in a television documentary on aikido: NTV's The Master of Aikido, broadcast in January 1960.[5] Ueshiba maintained links with the Japanese nationalist movement even in later life; his student Kanshu Sunadomari reported that Ueshiba temporarily sheltered Mikami Taku, one of the naval officers involved in the May 15 Incident, at Iwama.[14]:159–160 In 1969, Ueshiba became ill. He led his last training session on March 10, and was taken to hospital where he was diagnosed with cancer of the liver. He died suddenly on April 26, 1969.[9]:72 His body was buried at Kōzan-ji, and he was given the posthumous Buddhist title "Aiki-in Moritake En'yū Daidōshi" (合気院盛武円融大道士); parts of his hair were enshrined at Ayabe, Iwama and Kumano.[3]:13 Two months later, his wife Hatsu (植芝 はつ Ueshiba Hatsu, née Itokawa Hatsu; 1881–1969) also died.[2]:316–317[6]:3 Development of aikido[edit] Main article: Aikido Aikido—usually translated as the Way of Unifying Spirit or the Way of Spiritual Harmony—is a fighting system that focuses on throws, pins and joint locks together with some striking techniques. It emphasises protecting the opponent and promotes spiritual and social development.[26] The technical curriculum of aikido was derived from the teachings of Takeda Sōkaku; the basic techniques of aikido stem from his Daitō-ryū system.[12][27] In the earlier years of his teaching, from the 1920s to the mid-1930s, Ueshiba taught the Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu system; his early students' documents bear the term Daitō-ryū.[15] Indeed, Ueshiba trained one of the future highest grade earners in Daitō-ryū, Takuma Hisa, in the art before Takeda took charge of Hisa's training.[28] The early form of training under Ueshiba was noticeably different from later forms of aikido. It had a larger curriculum, increased use of strikes to vital points (atemi) and a greater use of weapons. The schools of aikido developed by Ueshiba's students from the pre-war period tend to reflect the harder style of the early training. These students included Kenji Tomiki (who founded the Shodokan Aikido sometimes called Tomiki-ryū), Noriaki Inoue (who founded Shin'ei Taidō), Minoru Mochizuki (who founded Yoseikan Budo) and Gozo Shioda (who founded Yoshinkan Aikido). Many of these styles are therefore considered "pre-war styles", although some of these teachers continued to train with Ueshiba in the years after World War II.[19]:134–136 During his lifetime, Ueshiba had three spiritual experiences that impacted greatly on his understanding of the martial arts. The first occurred in 1925, after Ueshiba had defeated a naval officer's bokken (wooden katana) attacks unarmed and without hurting the officer. Ueshiba then walked to his garden, where he had the following realisation: I felt the universe suddenly quake, and that a golden spirit sprang up from the ground, veiled my body, and changed my body into a golden one. At the same time my body became light. I was able to understand the whispering of the birds, and was clearly aware of the mind of God, the creator of the universe. At that moment I was enlightened: the source of budō [the martial way] is God's love – the spirit of loving protection for all beings ... Budō is not the felling of an opponent by force; nor is it a tool to lead the world to destruction with arms. True Budō is to accept the spirit of the universe, keep the peace of the world, correctly produce, protect and cultivate all beings in nature.[29] His second experience occurred in 1940 when engaged in the ritual purification process of misogi. Around 2 am, I suddenly forgot all the martial techniques I had ever learned. The techniques of my teachers appeared completely new. Now they were vehicles for the cultivation of life, knowledge, and virtue, not devices to throw people with.[30] His third experience was in 1942 during the worst fighting of World War II, when Ueshiba had a vision of the "Great Spirit of Peace".[1]:18 The Way of the Warrior has been misunderstood. It is not a means to kill and destroy others. Those who seek to compete and better one another are making a terrible mistake. To smash, injure, or destroy is the worst thing a human being can do. The real Way of a Warrior is to prevent such slaughter – it is the Art of Peace, the power of love.[31]:223 After these events, Ueshiba seemed to slowly grow away from Takeda, and he began to change his art.[32] These changes are reflected in the differing names with which he referred to his system, first as aiki-jūjutsu, then Ueshiba-ryū, Asahi-ryū,[33] and aiki budō.[31]:89 In 1942, when Ueshiba's group joined the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, the martial art that Ueshiba developed finally came to be known as aikido.[16][34][35] As Ueshiba grew older, more skilled, and more spiritual in his outlook, his art also changed and became softer and more gentle. Martial techniques became less important, and more focus was given to the control of ki.[36][37] In his own expression of the art there was a greater emphasis on what is referred to as kokyū-nage, or "breath throws" which are soft and blending, utilizing the opponent's movement in order to throw them. Ueshiba regularly practiced cold water misogi, as well as other spiritual and religious rites, and viewed his studies of aikido as part of this spiritual training.[6]:17 Ueshiba with a group of his international students at the Hombu dojo in 1967. Over the years, Ueshiba trained a large number of students, many of whom later became famous teachers in their own right and developed their own styles of aikido. Some of them were uchi-deshi, live-in students. Ueshiba placed many demands on his uchi-deshi, expecting them to attend him at all times, act as training partners (even in the middle of the night), arrange his travel plans, massage and bathe him, and assist with household chores.[38] There were roughly four generations of students, comprising the pre-war students (training c.1921–1935), students who trained during the Second World War (c.1936–1945), the post-war students in Iwama (c.1946–1955) and the students who trained with Ueshiba during his final years (c.1956–c.1969).[10] As a result of Ueshiba's martial development throughout his life, students from each of these generations tend to have markedly different approaches to aikido.[38] These variations are compounded by the fact that few students trained with Ueshiba for a protracted period; only Yoichiro Inoue, Kenji Tomiki, Gozo Shioda, Morihiro Saito, Tsutomu Yukawa and Mitsugi Saotome studied directly under Ueshiba for more than five or six years.[25][39] After the war, Ueshiba and the Hombu Dojo dispatched some of their students to various other countries, resulting in aikido spreading around the world.[40][19]:136 Honors[edit] Medal of Honor (Purple Ribbon) (Japan), 1960[2]:306 Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Rosette, 1964[41][2]:309 Order of the Sacred Treasure (Japan), 1968[42] Works[edit] Morihei Ueshiba, The Secret Teachings of Aikido (2008), Kodansha International, ISBN 978-4-7700-3030-6 Morihei Ueshiba, Budo: Teachings of the Founder of Aikido (1996), Kodansha International, ISBN 978-4-7700-2070-3 Morihei Ueshiba, The Essence of Aikido: Spiritual Teachings of Morihei Ueshiba (1998), Kodansha International, ISBN 978-4-7700-2357-5 Morihei Ueshiba, The Art of Peace (2007), Shambhala, ISBN 978-1590304488
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morihei_Ueshiba






Setion 21: EDITH WINDSOR

The overturning of section 3 of the Defense Against Marriage Act (DOMA) in 2013 changed the lives of thousands of couples, and it was spurred by one woman from New York. Edith Windsor married Thea Spyer, her partner of 40 years, in Canada in 2007. Though the marriage was recognized above the border and in New York (which started recognizing out-of-state gay marriages in 2008), U.S. law prohibited the women from reaping the same benefits as other married couples in the States. Windsor felt this first-hand when Spyer died in 2009, leaving her with $363,000 in estate taxes and without hope for exemption. Instead of accepting this, she sued the federal government, arguing that the section of DOMA defining marriage as a union between a man and woman was unconstitutional. The Supreme Court eventually agreed, and on June 26, 2013 Windsor and Spyer's marriage was recognized. Windsor remarried in September 2016; she died in 2017, just short of her first anniversary.



Section 22: ELLEN DEGENERES


She sacrificed her career for us.
Ellen DeGeneres made television history when she announced she was gay in 1997. Hours after appearing on The Oprah Winfrey Show, after having come out to TIME magazine earlier in the month, DeGeneres's fictional sitcom counterpart of the same name followed suit in a two-part special episode of Ellen. The reveal was almost as significant for Ellen the character as it was for Ellen the real-life comedian: In the mid-'90s, LGBT characters—especially well-rounded, relatable ones—were practically non-existent in prime-time. The "Puppy Episode" opened the door for several more television programs starring openly gay characters. Today, Ellen continues to light up screens on her daytime talk show while remaining an active supporter of LGBT rights.

Section 23: BAYARD RUSTIN
Bayard Rustin was instrumental in one of the greatest civil rights demonstrations in history. In 1963, he worked with Martin Luther King Jr. to organize the March on Washington, then in the 1980s he redirected his focus to a different cause. "Gay people are the new barometer for social change," he said in a speech in 1986. He died the following year, but his extensive activism work included fighting for the passage of New York’s gay rights bill and urging the NAACP to acknowledge the AIDS epidemic.
Section 24:BARBARA GITTINGS
The concept of "gay rights" was virtually nonexistent in buttoned-up 1950s America. But that didn't stop Barbara Gittings from carving out a space for gay women like her where she saw the need for one. She founded the New York chapter of America's first lesbian organization, the Daughters of Bilitis, in 1958 when she was 26 years old, and in the 1960s she picketed to end discrimination against gay employees in the federal government. But perhaps the greatest legacy she left behind is the American Library Association's bibliography of literature about gays and lesbians, one of the first collections of its kind.

Section 25: AARON FRICKE In spring of 1980, Aaron Fricke looked forward to attending prom with the rest of his classmates at Cumberland High in Rhode Island. But unlike his peers, Fricke hoped to go with a date of the same gender. Once the principal caught wind of the plan he made his stance clear: No same-sex couples would be allowed into the event. Fricke challenged his school in court and won the right to attend prom with his male date—the judge even required his school to provide enough security to keep them safe from harassment. Fricke v. Lynch is now considered a landmark case in the fight for LGBT student rights.
Section 26: MARTINA NAVRATILOVA
In 1981, Czech-American tennis star Martina Navratilova was at the top of her game—she had won Wimbledon twice already and was about to start a record-breaking string of nine Wimbledon final appearances. Then she put her career and celebrity status in jeopardy by coming out, first as bisexual and then as a lesbian. Navratilova estimates that she lost millions in endorsement deals following her revelation. Despite the financial setback, she continued to dominate the tennis court while using her star power to advocate for gay rights. In 1992, she joined other activists in a lawsuit challenging a Colorado amendment that banned extending civil rights protections to gay people.
Section 27:  MARSHA JOHNSON The Stonewall Riot of 1969, in which a late-night raid of a prominent New York City gay bar devolved into a violent struggle between patrons and police, is largely seen as the driving event behind the gay rights movement. Today Stonewall is recognized as a national monument, but the names of many of the men and women who led the unrest are still missing from history books. Marsha P. Johnson, a trans woman from New Jersey, was on the front lines that night according to eyewitness accounts. After she helped spark a national resistance, Johnson continued to support LGBT communities during the AIDS crisis. According to Mic, she joined the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power in the 1980s, which, among other things, fought to lower the price of HIV/AIDS medication.
Section 28: Leonard Matlovich
Leonard Matlovich wasn't the first gay man to serve in the military, but he may have been the first to come out on such a public platform. For most of his life, including his years spent in Vietnam, Matlovich kept his true sexuality a secret from the world. Then in 1975, he decided to come out to his superiors. An interview with The New York Times soon followed, and then a famous appearance on the cover of TIME magazine that displayed his portrait above the words "I Am a Homosexual." The story attracted plenty of backlash, but it also initiated a conversation many people were hesitant to have at the time. Matlovich's admission eventually led to his discharge from the Air Force, where he had continued to serve as a race relations counselor after returning to the States. He died of complications from AIDS at age 44, and his gravestone in Washington D.C.'s Congressional Cemetery reads: "When I was in the military they gave me a medal for killing two men and a discharge for loving one."
Section 29:RICHARD ISAY Even after the American Psychiatric Association declassified homosexuality as an illness in 1973, the stigma persisted in the medical community. Gay patients were often approached as sick individuals who needed to be cured. According to his obituary in The New York Times, Dr. Richard Isay was one of the first prominent psychiatrists/psychoanalysts to encourage his gay patients to accept themselves rather than deny their feelings. Isay, a gay man himself, was already an established mental health professional when he came out of the closet. He was ostracized by his colleagues, but he continued to present his then-radical notions about homosexuality at meetings and in his writings nonetheless. Attitudes shifted in 1992, when Isay teamed up with the American Civil Liberties Union to threaten the American Psychoanalytic Association with a discrimination lawsuit. The APA agreed to start treating analysts the same regardless of their sexuality and to promote education on the subject within the network.

Section 30:LAVERNE COX
Laverne Cox has already made history several times throughout her career. In 2014, her role on Orange is the New Black earned her the first Emmy nomination for an openly trans actor, and in 2017 she became the first transgender regular to play a trans character on broadcast TV with CBS’s Doubt. When she isn’t blazing trails as an actor, she’s working off-screen to bolster LGBT rights as a film producer and motivational speaker.
Section 31: Section 32 Section 33: Section 34: Section 35: Section 36: Section 37: Section 38: Section 39: Section 40:







Chapter 7: Quotes, Poems and Prayers




“Human rights are not things that are put on the table for people to enjoy. These are things you fight for and then you protect.” 
― Wangari Maathai
“Finally I was able to see that if I had a contribution I wanted to make, I must do it, despite what others said. That I was OK the way I was. That it was all right to be strong.” 
― Wangari Maathai “A tree has roots in the soil yet reaches to the sky. It tells us that in order to aspire we need to be grounded and that no matter how high we go it is from our roots that we draw sustenance. It is a reminder to all of us who have had success that we cannot forget where we came from. It signifies that no matter how powerful we become in government or how many awards we receive, our power and strength and our ability to reach our goals depend on the people, those whose work remain unseen, who are the soil out of which we grow, the shoulders on which we stand” 
― Wangari Maathai
“The generation that destroys the environment is not the generation that pays the price. That is the problem.” 
― Wangari Maathai “Today we are faced with a challenge that calls for a shift in our thinking, so that humanity stops threatening its life-support system. We are called to assist the Earth to heal her wounds and in the process heal our own - indeed to embrace the whole of creation in all its diversity, beauty and wonder. Recognizing that sustainable development, democracy and peace are indivisible is an idea whose time has come” 
― Wangari Maathai


Section 2 Quotes and Poems
The Art Of Peace Morihei Ueshiba Translated and Edited by John Stevens for Shambhala; Boston and London;2005AD
Translators introduction




Chapter 8: Vocation
























Chapter 9: The Laws and Tales of Marriage Section 1: Dating
At an Early age we can develop feelings for each other but in youth we do not understand things fully and patience is a virtue......
The benefits of Abstenance
Waiting until you are mature and responsible


For Sex It is best to wait until marriage but we are all flawed and some can wait and some cant
Some never find love, some love one only and some love more than one.


Monogomous principles – this is respected when there is only one person you are intimate with.
or polymorous principles are expected if one is to become intimate before marriage .
Polyamory (from Greek πολύ poly, "many, several", and Latin amor, "love") is the practice of, or desire for, intimate relationships with more than one partner, with the informed consent of all partners involved. It has been described as "consensual, ethical, and responsible non-monogamy".
Please Remember before engaging in an act of Intamacy the Effects it will have when it comes time to marry as some will not want you if you give away your body too much.
Section 2:A Comprehension of Love Section 3: Types of Marriage A) Monogomous Straight Monogomous Lesbian Monogomous Gay Monogomous Trans Monogomous
B) Polygamous Straight Polygamy Female head Male Head
Lesbian Polygamy
Gay Polygamy
Bi Polygamy

Section 3: The Laws of Marriage
A) Monogomous Straight Monogomous Lesbian Monogomous Gay Monogomous Trans Monogomous
B) Polygamous Straight Polygamy Lesbian Polygamy Gay Polygamy Bi Polygamy

Section 4: Tales of Marriage A) Monogomous stories Straight Monogomous Lesbian Monogomous Gay Monogomous Trans Monogomous
B) Polygamous stories Straight Polygamy Lesbian Polygamy Gay Polygamy Bi Polygamy



























Section 10: Evironmental Awareness


















































Chapter 11: The growth and maintenance of Medicine (pioneers)





Marie Skłodowska Curie changed the world not once but twice. She founded the new science of radioactivity – even the word was invented by her – and her discoveries launched effective cures for cancer.

 “She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, first female professor at the University of Paris, and the first person – note the use of person there, not woman – to win a second Nobel Prize.”


































Chapter 12:The ethics and Morals of Science and Discovery


















































Chapter 13:The Spiritual Energy Section 1: Mystic Rituals
Section 2: the Study of Chi















































Chapter 14: The Ever Expanding Multiverse
The Multiverse is continually growing with each Universe Expanding at varrying rates






























































































Chapter 15: the path to salvation
***Until you are Vegan you will spend time in Purgatory or hell until your way is earned and path redeemed.
1) Equalia Kaleidoscopians Followers Worship Da Grand Creator Hermata and seek to become Peace Architects for Eternity

2) Omeyocan Nativescopians 3) Da Great Beyond Kalailens - Abati Gazi- Father Time Ibu Jagat- Mother Universe Karima- 4) Kaleiobia Kaleiobas Yarobas Olorun (Yoruba alphabet: Ọlọrun) is the ruler of (or in) the Heavens. The Supreme God or Supreme Being in the Yoruba pantheon, Olorun is also called Olodumare. Humans do not worship Olorun directly; there are no sacred areas of worship or ordained person. Olorun is outlying, distant, and does not partake in human rituals. There are no shrines or sacrifices dedicated directly to him, although followers can send prayers in his direction.[1] Among Yoruba Christians and Muslims, the word Ọlọrun is also commonly used to denote their faith in God as The Almighty Divine, The Absolute Sovereign. For Yoruba traditions, there is no centralized authority; because of this and the way the traditions were spread through the slave trade to other areas of the world, there are many different ways that Yoruban people and their descendants or orisa-based faiths can understand the idea of Olorun.[1]


5) Trāyastriṃśa

6) Mount Olympus

7) God's Kingdom Christleiscopes Jeweleiscopes Musliscopes https://www.ancient.eu/Moses/

8) Zion Kaleidofarians Rastafarians Christians 9) Valhalla Norseiscopes 10) Tian A LGBT Pantheon of Dieties rule this heaven Kaleidoscopians Kaleintists Scientologists Christians Jewlelescopes Musliscopes

11) Utopia

Polygamists and Polymorous interFaith based beliefs

Kaleidoscopians Kaleintists Kaleidofarians Scientologists Christians Jewlelescopes Musliscopes



12) Scientifica Kaelintists Scientology

13) Celestial paradise This is a Place for the Dieties to take a break and all who come here work towards a vacation for the dieties and help prepare them to recover from judgements and for future judgements

14)fields of Aaru
15) Kaleidoscopia Hermata is preparing this for Gud and Luv

Kaleidoscopians Kaleintists Kaleidofarians Christiscopians





















Section 2: Scriptures
https://www.ancient.eu/Moses/
Moses (c. 1400 BCE) is considered one of the most important religious leaders in world history. He is claimed by the religions of Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Bahai as an important prophet of God and the founder of monotheistic belief. The story of Moses is told in the biblical books of Exodus, Leviticus, Deuteronomy, and Numbers but he continues to be referenced throughout the Bible and is the prophet most often cited in the New Testament. In the Quran he also plays an important role and, again, is the most often cited religious figure who is mentioned 115 times as opposed to Muhammed who is referred to by name only four times in the text. As in the Bible, in the Quran Moses is a figure who alternately stands for divine or human understanding. Moses is best known from the story in the biblical Book of Exodus and Quran as the lawgiver who met God face-to-face on Mount Sinai to receive the Ten Commandments after leading his people, the Hebrews, out of bondage in Egypt and to the "promised land" of Canaan. The story of the Hebrew Exodus from Egypt is only found in the Penteteuch, the first five books of the Bible, and in the Quran which was written later. No other ancient sources corroborate the story and no archaeological evidence supports it. This has led many scholars to conclude that Moses was a legendary figure and the Exodus story a cultural myth. The Egyptian historian Manetho (3rd century BCE), however, tells the story of an Egyptian priest named Osarsiph who led a group of lepers in rebellion against the wishes of the king who wanted them banished. Osarsiph, Manetho claims, rejected the polytheism of Egyptian religion in favor of a monotheistic understanding and changed his name to Moses meaning "child of..." and usually used in conjunction with a god's name (Ramesses would be Ra-Moses, son of Ra, for example). Osarsiph would have attached no god's name to his own, it would seem, since he believed himself a son of a living god who had no name human beings could - or should - utter.
Manetho's story of Osarsiph/Moses is related by the historian Flavius Josephus (c. 37-100 CE) who cited Manetho's story at length in his own work. The Roman historian Tacitus (c. 56-117 CE) tells a similar story of a man named Moses who becomes the leader of a colony of Egyptian lepers. This has led a number of writers and scholars (Sigmund Freud and Joseph Campbell among them) to assert that the Moses of the Bible was not a Hebrew who was raised in an Egyptian palace but an Egyptian priest who led a religious revolution to establish monotheism. This theory links Moses closely with the pharaoh Akhenaten (1353-1336 BCE) who established his own monotheistic belief in the god Aten, unlike any other god and more powerful than all, in the fifth year of his reign. Akhenaten's monotheism may have been born of a genuine religious impulse or could have been a reaction against the priests of the god Amun who had grown almost as wealthy and powerful as the throne. In establishing monotheism and banning all the old gods of Egypt, Akhenaten effectively eliminated any threat to the crown from the priesthood. The theory advanced by Campbell and others (following Sigmund Freud's Moses and Monotheism in this) is that Moses was a priest of Akhenaten who led like-minded followers out of Egypt after Akhenaten's death when his son, Tutankhamun (c. 1336-1327 BCE), restored the old gods and practices. Still other scholars equate Moses with Akhenaten himself and see the Exodus story as a mythological rendering of Akhenaten's honest attempt at religious reform. Moses is mentioned by a number of classical writers all drawing on the stories known in the Bible or by earlier writers. He could have been a mythological character who took on a life of his own as his story was told over and over again or could have been a real person to whom magical or supernatural events were ascribed or could have been precisely as he is depicted in the early books of the Bible and in the Quran. Dating Moses' life and the precise date of the Exodus is difficult and is always based on interpretations of the Book of Exodus in conjunction with other books of the Bible and so are always speculative. It is entirely possible that the Exodus story was written by a Hebrew scribe living in Canaan who wished to make a clear distinction between his people and the older settlements of the Amorites in the region. The story of God's Chosen People led by his servant Moses to a land their God had promised them would have served this purpose well.



The Bible Story of Joseph, from the Book of Genesis, is one of heroic redemption and forgiveness.  Joseph was the most loved son of his father, Israel, given the famous robe of many colors. When Joseph reported having dreams of his brothers, and even the stars and moon, bowing before him, their jealousy of Joseph grew into action.  The brothers sold him into slavery to a traveling caravan of Ishmaelites who took him to Egypt and sold him to Potiphar, the captain of Pharaoh's guard. In Egypt, the Lord's presence with Joseph enables him to find favor with Potiphar and the keeper of the prison.  With God's help, Joseph interprets the dreams of two prisoners, predicting that one of them will be reinstated but the other put to death.  Joseph then interprets the dreams of the Pharaoh, which anticipate seven years of plenty followed by seven years of famine. Pharaoh recognizes Joseph's God-given ability and prompts his promotion to the chief administrator of Egypt. Shortage of food in Canaan forces Jacob to send his sons to buy grains from the Egyptians.  Benjamin, Joseph's younger brother remains at home as Jacob fears of losing him, as he did Joseph.  When Joseph finally encounters his brothers again, he deliberately conceals his identity. He accuses them of being spies and tells them to return with Benjamin or he will not sell them grain.  The ongoing famine forces Jacob to reluctantly send his sons back to Egypt with Benjamin, and they are unexpectedly invited to dine at Joseph's house. Joseph then tests the character of his brothers by placing a silver cup the sack of Benjamin and falsely accusing him of theft.  When Judah offers to stay in place of Benjamin, Joseph knows that his character has changed and reveals that he is their brother. Joseph explains they need not feel guilty for betraying him as it was God's plan for him to be in Egypt to preserve his family.  He told them to bring their father and his entire household into Egypt to live in the province of Goshen because there were five more years of famine left.  Joseph supplied them Egyptian transport wagons, new garments, silver, and twenty additional donkeys carrying provisions for the journey.  Jacob is then joyously reunited with his son Joseph. 
https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/520477/jewish/The-Story-of-King-David-in-the-Bible.htm
King David is one of the most well-known figures in Jewish history. His life was filled with much happiness and much pain. He is known by many titles: David the conqueror, David the pious man, David the sweet singer, David the shepherd and David the penitent. King David was a descendant of Judah as well as Ruth, and was promised by G d that his children would rule Israel forever. Until this very day, he is remembered by Jews everywhere, who still chant his Psalms in prayer, in times of joy and sorrow.
David’s Early Life David was born in Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, in the year 2854 (907 BCE), during the era of the prophets. He was the youngest of seven sons, and only 10 generations removed from Judah, one of Jacob's 12 sons. He was also a descendant of Ruth, the famous Moabite convert.1 A red-cheeked, bright-eyed and handsome young man, he used to tend to the sheep of his father, Jesse. Now, the people had recently anointed Saul as the first king of Israel, but Saul soon sinned and fell from Divine grace. It was then that the prophet Samuel (as directed by G d) anointed David as king of Israel. And so his ascension to the throne began.
David and Saul King Saul and David’s first encounter occurred when an evil spirit gripped King Saul. His advisors suggested he bring in a skilled musician who would play for the king to ease his mind. One of the attendants present recommended that the king bring in young David, whom he knew to be a skilled performer. Little did Saul know that the young lad who was playing before him was destined to be his successor.3
At this time, King Saul was battling the Philistines, longtime enemies of Israel. In the valley of Elah, the two armies were poised for battle, with nothing but a hill separating them. The Philistines vastly outnumbered Saul’s army. A Philistine giant, Goliath, appeared on the hill, and his words came roaring down like thunder: Why should you come out to engage in battle? I am the Philistine [champion], and you are Saul’s servants. Choose one of your men and let him come down against me. If he overcomes me in combat and kills me, we will become your slaves; but if I best him and kill him, you shall be our slaves and serve us.4 The sight of the fierce giant, six cubits and a span (about 10 feet5) tall, a towering figure on the hill, clad in armour, iron and brass from head to foot, filled the Jews with great terror. There was not a single man in the Israelite camp who dared accept the challenge. Day after day, for 40 days, this mighty giant appeared on the hill to repeat his challenge, morning and evening. Then, young David, filled with courage, approached the giant with just a staff, a slingshot and five stones.6 And with one shot, he slew the giant where he stood. He proceeded to cut off his head and presented it to King Saul. The Philistines witnessing this event fled in fear. And David was a national hero.7,8 (See here for more.) True Friendship “A love that is not dependent on anything will never perish . . . an example of this is the love between David and Jonathan.”9 When David overcame Goliath in battle and was brought to King Saul’s palace to be rewarded, he met Jonathan, the son of King Saul, for the first time. At that moment, their love and respect for each other was first founded: “When [David] finished speaking with Saul, Jonathan’s soul became bound up with the soul of David; Jonathan loved David as himself.”10 This bond between the two proved itself, even in the most difficult of times. Later on, King Saul began to fear that David wanted his throne and sought to kill him. Despite knowing that David posed a potential threat to his place in line to the crown, Jonathan loved David and protected him from his father’s attempts to have him killed. King Saul then selected David to be a warrior in his army. David’s success was so great, the verse relates, “When the [troops] came home [and] David returned from killing the Philistines, the women of all the towns of Israel came out . . . The women sang as they danced, and they chanted: ‘Saul has slain his thousands; David, his tens of thousands!’”11 King Saul started to grow envious of David’s glory and kept a watchful and jealous eye on David.12 King Saul vs. David G d continued to grant David much success in battle. King Saul started to fear that David’s fame and power would one day help him usurp the throne. This led to a war between the two men. It started when David was playing the harp for the king, and a cloud of fear and anger suddenly fell upon the king. King Saul took hold of a spear and threw it at David. By Divine intervention, David managed to escape. David fled south to the mountains of Judah, his home. He needed food and weapons. He obtained these from the city of Nob. At that time Nob was a holy place, distinguished because it housed the Tabernacle and the priests. David was taken in and cared for by Ahimelech and his fellow priests. This provided David with the opportunity to stock up on food and weapons. During his stay, he was seen by Doeg the Edomite, who was a servant of King Saul. Fearing this, David escaped to the city of Gath, and then sought refuge in one of the caves near Adullam, in the plains of Judah. It was a secure retreat, and David’s brothers and all his father's household came to him. His solitary abode was soon known, and he was joined by many who were in distress, or in debt or had any other reason to be discontented. Doeg the Edomite related news of David’s whereabouts to the king. King Saul embarked on a quest to hunt down and kill David. There were two times during this hunt when King Saul was at the mercy of David, and instead of taking advantage of the situation and killing the king, David spared his life, as he dared not to lay his hand upon G d’s anointed one. It was only after David spared his life for the second time that King Saul finally retreated and let David be.13 (See here for more.) Death of Saul and Jonathan King Saul was then waging a mighty war against the Philistines. David was in Ziklag (where he had retreated in fear that King Saul would change his mind and hunt him again) when he heard that Saul (and his son Jonathan) had died in battle. David sincerely mourned the death of Saul and Jonathan and the defeat of Israel.14
After the death of Saul, David saw that the time had come for him to emerge from exile and take over the leadership of his people. He left Ziklag and proceeded to the ancient city of Hebron, in Judah. There the people of Judah gathered and anointed him king. In the prime of his life (he was 30 years old), David was wise in council, prompt in action, G d-fearing and earnest, and the people recognized him as the most suitable candidate for the throne in those troubled times. King David’s ascension to the throne did not go unprotested. Abner (previously a general in King Saul’s army) felt that the crown should remain in the family of King Saul. However, his forces were beaten swiftly, and he had no choice but to acknowledge the reality of David being king over all of Israel. The people swarmed to Hebron to pay homage to their beloved king and to anoint him publicly. The occasion turned into a great national celebration that lasted for three days. In time, he moved his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem.15 King David maintained a standing army consisting of 12 divisions, each one representing one tribe of Israel. Each division numbered 24,000 men. Thus, King David's army totalled 288,000 men. David knew that before there could be real peace for his people, he would have to subdue the neighbouring enemies. He fought and subdued the Philistines, invaded Moab, slew most of their soldiers, and imposed a heavy tribute upon the people. Then King David marched against Hadadezer, king of Zoba in Syria, whose empire extended from the vicinity of Damascus eastward to the borders of the Euphrates. He vanquished his armies, subjected his people and sent the best of his horses to Jerusalem. This unparalleled succession of victories not only established King David's power, but also spread his name abroad. He was regarded as one of the mightiest rulers in the East.16 (See here for more.) King David’s Wives While King David had numerous wives,17 only eight are named in the book of Samuel: Michal, Ahinoam, Abigail, Maacah, Haggit, Avital, Eglah and Bathsheba. While not much detail is given about these women, we do know information about some of them: Michal was the second eldest daughter of King Saul. When the king was confronted by Goliath, he promised that the warrior to defeat this giant would be wed to one of his daughters. David came and slew the giant. King Saul proposed that David marry his eldest daughter, Merav. However, at that time, Merav had already already been given in marriage to another.18 King Saul then discovered that his daughter, Michal, wished to marry David. The king requested from David as a wedding dowry to marry Michal, one hundred foreskins from his enemies, the Philistines. King Saul had hoped that David would fall in battle (as he grew fearful of David as explained earlier), but David succeeded and took Michal as his wife.19 Abigail is described as a wise and beautiful women. It happened that when David and his men were fleeing from King Saul, he went to a wealthy man named Nabal to replenish his supply of food and weaponry. David expected Nabal to act generously towards him, as he had protected and did not take advantage of his shepherds who were him throughout his travels. However, Nabal, a fool and a drunk, refused and even mocked David. When his refusal was reported back to David, he made ready for war against Nabal. Abigail, the wife of Nabal, heard about this great commotion and quickly diffused the situation by running ahead and greeting David with plenty of food and gifts. Ten days later, G d struck Nabal and he died. Upon hearing of Nabal’s death, David sought to take Abigail as his wife and proposed to her.20 King David and Bathsheba It happened sometime after David was proclaimed king that he was taking a stroll on the rooftops, and he beheld the beauty of a woman named Bathsheba. David inquired about the woman and was informed that she was married to a soldier named Uriah. Now David’s passion for Bathsheba was strong, and he wished to marry her. He sent Uriah to the front lines of battle, knowing full well that he was giving him a death sentence. When news of Uriah’s death reached David, he took Bathsheba as his wife. G d was displeased with David’s actions and sent the prophet Nathan to rebuke the king. Knowing that he sinned, David sat in penance until G d forgave him. This story raises many questions that are beyond the scope of this article, but a couple of points need to be addressed in order to bring some clarity to the story.21 According to the Talmud, the reason King David sought to marry Bathsheba and was willing to go to great lengths to do so was because he saw by Divine inspiration that he was destined to marry her and bear the next king of Israel.22 Furthermore, before sending Uriah off to battle, he had a quick discussion with him regarding the war; in the midst of which King David gave Uriah a command to go home, a command that Uriah did not obey. He told the king, “The ark and Israel and Judah are located at Sukkot, and my master Joab and Your Majesty’s men are camped in the open; how can I go home?”23 Referring to Joab (David’s general) as “my master” in front of the king was tantamount to treason, and Uriah deserved the death penalty for his rebellion.24 However, King David sentenced him to death under the guise of sending him to war so people should not say, “King David had Uriah killed so that he could take his wife.”25 Justified though his actions may be, they were still displeasing to G d. Nathan the prophet informed the king that the first child he would have with Bathsheba would die as a consequence of his actions.26 Shortly after this, Bathsheba gave birth to a boy who fell critically ill. David fasted and prayed in the hope of rescinding G d’s decree, but alas, on the seventh day, the baby passed away. David accepted this as part of his penance, got up from fasting and prostrated before G d.27,28 David and Bathsheba then gave birth to a son they called Solomon, "the peaceful," but whom Nathan the prophet, blessing him in the name of G d, called Jedidiah, "the beloved of G d." Solomon was destined to rule over Israel. David’s Other Sons David had a number of sons, three of whom—Absalom, Adoniah, and Solomon—became prominent in the history of Israel. Absalom was a handsome, ambitious and charismatic prince. He believed that he was destined to be king and feared that his elderly father would pass the crown on to young Solomon (as King David was Divinely inspired to). And so he rallied some of the greatest warriors and advisers and led a revolt against his father. News of the revolt broke David’s heart and, instead of confronting his son in an all-out war, he fled on foot with some of his loyal servants. Absalom was determined to chase down his father, and a bloody battle ensued. Realizing that his father had the upper hand, Absalom fled in terror and dismay. As he was riding through the woods on his swift mule, his long locks of his hair got caught in the spreading branches of a large tree. Unable to extricate himself, he remained suspended, for his mule had escaped. One of David's servants brought this intelligence to Joab (King David’s general), who gave the order that Absalom be put to death. Even though Absalom had caused great troubles for his father, King David nonetheless grieved and mourned for the death of his son. Unfortunately, Absalom was not the only son to seek the throne. Adoniah also had grand plans to obtain the crown, but King David put an immediate halt to any other usurpers by having Solomon anointed and pronounced King of Israel.29 (See here for more.) David Lives Forever At the age of 70, King David passed away. It is said that before his death he asked G d to reveal exactly when he would leave this world.30 G d, not wishing to divulge this information, merely informed him on which day of the week he was die: Shabbat. David made sure to be constantly studying Torah throughout every Shabbat so that the Angel of Death (Satan) would not be able to take his soul. When David’s time on earth came to an end, the Angel of Death distracted the king from his learning by shaking the trees in his garden. The king climbed the stairs to see what the commotion was, but one of the steps broke underneath his feet. Startled, the king paused from his studies, and it was that moment that the king passed away.
https://www.ancient.eu/solomon/
According to biblical tradition (and some say myth), King Solomon was the third and last king in the ancient United Kingdom of Israel. Other faiths, such as Islam and Rastafarianism, also embrace the notion of Solomon as a sagacious king and powerful prophet of Israel. He was renowned for his wisdom, his prolific writings, and his building accomplishments. Born around 1010 BCE, Solomon was the tenth son of King David (the second king of ancient united Israel) and the second son of Bathsheba. Like King Saul and King David, King Solomon reigned for 40 years in one of the highest and most prosperous periods in Israel’s history - called by many, “The Golden Age” of Israel. During his reign, Solomon controlled the trade routes coming out of Edom, Arabia, India, Africa, and Judea; he constructed an elaborate and profitable web of alliances (cemented by an enormous assemblage of hundreds of wives and concubines), and he purportedly built the first Temple of God in Jerusalem, which was destroyed (along with the entire city of Jerusalem) by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. Despite initial sovereign successes, the end of Solomon’s rule was marked by several insurrections and attacks from both foreign and domestic enemies, as well as a disintegration of national and religious integrity because of cultural appeasements within Israel, which compromised and weakened the social fabric of the United Kingdom. He died in 931 BCE at age 80, possibly the most prosperous and productive king ever to rule over Israel. The Traditional Story of King Solomon The story of King Solomon begins with his father, King David, and his mother, Bathsheba. In the Hebrew scriptures, 2 Samuel 3 states that King David, anointed by the Prophet Samuel before King Saul’s demise to be his replacement, officially became King of Judea (1010 BCE).  Later, 2 Samuel 5 states that (in 1002 BCE) all the elders of Israel approached him to be their ruler, and “The king made a covenant with them at Hebron before the Lord, and they anointed David king over Israel.” King David’s reign lasted 40 years, and like King Saul, it started off better than it ended. David’s initial zeal for God and for ethical integrity paved the way for his early fame and fortune, although being a man of warfare and blood (according to the scriptures), God decided that David was not suitable to be the one to build God’s Temple (that would be placed in the hands of his son, Solomon). Moreover, David’s illicit affair and subsequent devious actions (leading to the assassination of Uriah the Hittite and its cover-up) complicated the rest of David’s reign - along with the rape of Tamar, the murder of Ammon, and the attempted coup of Absalom, among other controversies. By the end of David’s life, he had lost touch with Israelite society and eventually lost political control of it, as well. This led to an attempted coup by his son, Adonijah (whose mother was Haggith, David’s fifth wife), who proclaimed himself to be king with the assistance of General Joab and Abiathar the Priest; however, the majority of Israel's institutional agents did not support Adonijah’s claim. The Hebrew scriptures state that the Prophet Nathan went first to Bathsheba to alert her to Adonijah’s usurpation of the throne, who then went to her husband, King David, to break the troubling news to him. Eventually, the Prophet Nathan joined the two, and King David officially made Solomon his heir apparent. David said, “Assuredly Solomon your son shall be king after me, and he shall sit on my throne in my place” (1 Kings 1). Solomon Becomes King King David died from natural causes in 961 BCE, was buried in Jerusalem, and, as suggested in the Hebrew and Greek scriptures, facilitated the establishment of the eternal kingdom of God through his piety and lineage. Before his death, David gave his final admonition to his son, Solomon, saying, “Keep the charge of the Lord your God: to walk in his ways, to keep his statutes, his commandments, his judgments, and his testimonies, as it is written in the Law of Moses, that you may prosper in all that you do and wherever you turn. . . for you are a wise man” (1 Kings 2). Map of the Levant circa 830 BCE by Richardprins (GNU FDL) The threat of civil war and Adonijah’s immediate execution as a traitor was averted for a time; however, Adonijah attempted to possess King David’s former asexual concubine, Abishag the Shunammite, behind King Solomon’s back. This enraged Solomon most likely because of Adonijah’s surreptitious political triangulation of Bathsheba and because of Adonijah’s political machinations to be following in King David’s footsteps. Thereafter, “King Solomon sent by the hand of Benaiah the son of Jehoiada’ and he struck [Adonijah] down, and he died” (1Kings 1). King Solomon also dispatched the other ringleaders of the coup - General Joab and Abiathar the Priest, although Joab was executed and Abiathar was exiled. Perhaps one of the more fantastical yet pivotal parts of the biblical story of Solomon is the divine gift that he received from God as recorded in the Hebrew scriptures. Solomon implored, “Now, O Lord God, let your promise to David my father be established, for you have made me king over a people like the dust of the earth in multitude. Now give me wisdom and knowledge.” According to the Hebrew scriptures, this impressed God, so Solomon received not only knowledge and wisdom, but also “riches and wealth and honor, such as none of the kings have had who were before you, nor shall any after you have the like” (2 Chronicles 1). The Qur'an also indicates that Solomon received a divine gift of wisdom, along with other special gifts (21:78–79) - "And We made Sulaiman [Solomon] to understand (the case); and unto each of them We gave judgment and knowledge." Features of Solomon's Reign Solomon’s prosperity and success were also achieved through ingenious reforms and innovations such as the improvement of defense measures; the expansion of the royal court; the financial windfall from more sophisticated taxation, labor conscriptions of Canaanites and Israelites, tributes and gifts from foreign countries under the influence of Solomon; and a land and sea trading system that utilized a powerful navy and army to protect assets and trade routes. According to the Hebrew scriptures, “The king made silver and gold as common in Jerusalem as stones, and he made cedars as abundant as the sycamores, which are in the lowland” (2 Chronicles 1). King Solomon was also famous for his international relationships, forming alliances with other nearby powerful nations such as Egypt, Moab, Tyre, Arabia, etc. Many of these partnerships were cemented through royal marriages and the giving of concubines to Solomon, eventually gaining him 700 wives and 300 concubines. One of King Solomon’s more famous political-amorous relationships was with the Queen of Sheba (which some speculate to be modern-day Yemen), who visited Israel with a lavish tribute of 120 talents of gold. The Hebrew scriptures state, “And when the queen of Sheba had seen the wisdom of Solomon, the house that he had built, the food on his table, the seating of his servants, the service of his waiters and their apparel, his cupbearers and their apparel, and his entryway by which he went up to the house of the Lord, there was no more spirit in her” (2 Chronicles 9).  Clearly, the Queen was impressed with Solomon and his accomplishments, and the two cultivated an intimate relationship, with Sheba helping create, foster, and maintain Solomon’s trading with other Arabian kings. Additionally, according to the Rastafarian faith, Solomon and Sheba conceived a child together, whose descendants included Haile Selassie I, "the God of the Black race," as Selassie would then be related to both King David and Jesus Christ of Nazareth.  Solomon's Temple  King Solomon is credited in the Hebrew scriptures as sponsoring, planning, funding, and executing the building of the Temple to house the Ark of the Covenant, per the wishes of his father, King David, and God. The building of the Temple is recorded in 1 Kings and 2 Chronicles, with the ground-breaking beginning in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign, and construction was completed seven years later with an ostentatious dedication. In a seven-day celebration, Solomon sacrificed 22,000 oxen and 120,000 sheep to celebrate the Temple’s completion and God’s willingness to dwell among them, therein. Solomon's Temple, Jerusalem by Unknown Artist (Public Domain) The architectural design of the Temple was modeled after the tabernacle that had housed the Ark of the Covenant for decades (if not centuries). Quite lavish, it was double the size and built mainly from stone, with cedar paneling to hide all masonry, which was overlaid with gold. The inside of the Temple was decorated with elaborate carvings (gourds and open flowers), golden lampstands, an altar of incense (also called “the golden altar”), and two bronze pillars among other embellishments. In a less-advanced architectural age, at over 100 feet long by 40 feet wide by 60 feet high (30 x 12 x 18 m) with outer doors of ivory, the First Temple must have seemed an impossibility, a miraculous achievement, for most visiting Israelites. According to the Hebrew scriptures, after the Temple was completed, Solomon had the Ark of the Covenant finally moved from the tent that King David had made for it and placed it in its specialized chamber on the most western end of the Temple called, “The Holy of Holies.” A perfect 20 x 20 x 20 ft. (6 x 6 x 6 m) cube, this was the most sacred room that no one besides the Chief Priest could enter (on the Day of Atonement) without dying. Institutionally and nationally, it was the intersection of the Divine with his People through his mediator. The Temple did not just house the Levitical priests of God. Side rooms and a courtyard were constructed around the whole building, with areas sectioned off for both the priests and the common people of Israel. Being a builder, King Solomon also engaged in other construction projects such as his personal palace, the Palace of the Forest of Lebanon, the Hall of the Pillars, and the Hall of Justice. Yet, Solomon did not restrict his projects to Jerusalem alone. He also rebuilt several cities; he commissioned fleets of ships and built numerous harbors to accommodate the bounty of the trade routes; and he constructed stables to house his thousands of horses and chariots. It is even possible that he helped erect (or financed with plunder from the Temple by the Assyrians or Babylonians) the famous Hanging Gardens (one of the legendary Seven Wonders of the World). Solomon's Literature  King Solomon is also credited for contributing several books and literary works to the Hebrew scriptures including the Book of Proverbs, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes, as well as traditionally penning some extra-biblical works including musical songs, poetry, histories, and scientific works in botany and zoology (although no extant writings have been discovered, currently). Under Solomon, Israel’s golden age produced most of the works that were eventually gathered together into the “The Writings” or “Kethubim” section of the Hebrew scriptures.

The Queen of Sheba (Hebrew: מלכת שבא‎; Arabic: ٱلْمَلِكَة بَلْقِيْس‎, romanized: Al-Malikah Balqīs) is a figure first mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. In the original story, she brings a caravan of valuable gifts for the Israelite King Solomon. This tale has undergone extensive Jewish, Islamic, and Ethiopian elaborations, and has become the subject of one of the most widespread and fertile cycles of legends in the Orient.[1] Modern historians identify Sheba with the South Arabian kingdom of Saba in present-day Yemen. The queen's existence is disputed among historians.[2] Narratives[edit] Bible[edit] T Queen of Sheba and Solomon, around 1280, window now in Cologne Cathedral, Germany The Queen of Sheba's visit to Solomon by Tintoretto, around 1555 he Queen of Sheba (Hebrew: מַלְכַּת־ שְׁבָא,[3] malkat-šəḇā in the Hebrew Bible, Koinē Greek: βασίλισσα Σαβὰ in the Septuagint,[4] Syriac: ܡܠܟܬ ܫܒܐ‎,[5] Ge'ez: ንግሥተ፡ሳባእ፡[6]) came to Jerusalem "with a very great retinue, with camels bearing spices, and very much gold, and precious stones" (I Kings 10:2). "Never again came such an abundance of spices" (10:10; II Chron. 9:1–9) as those she gave to Solomon. She came "to prove him with hard questions", which Solomon answered to her satisfaction. They exchanged gifts, after which she returned to her land.[7][8] The use of the term ḥiddot or 'riddles' (I Kings 10:1), an Aramaic loanword whose shape points to a sound shift no earlier than the sixth century B.C., indicates a late origin for the text.[7] Since there is no mention of the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, Martin Noth has held that the Book of Kings received a definitive redaction around 550 BC.[9] Virtually all modern scholars agree that Sheba was the South Arabian kingdom of Saba, centered around the oasis of Marib, in present-day Yemen. Sheba was quite well known in the classical world, and its country was called Arabia Felix.[8] Around the middle of the first millennium B.C., there were Sabaeans also in the Horn of Africa, in the area that later became the realm of Aksum.[10] There are five places in the Bible where the writer distinguishes Sheba (שׁבא‎), i.e. the Yemenite Sabaeans, from Seba (סבא‎), i.e. the African Sabaeans. In Ps. 72:10 they are mentioned together: "the kings of Sheba and Seba shall offer gifts".[11] This spelling differentiation, however, may be purely factitious; the indigenous inscriptions make no such difference, and both Yemenite and African Sabaeans are there spelt in exactly the same way.[10] The alphabetic inscriptions from South Arabia furnish no evidence for women rulers, but Assyrian inscriptions repeatedly mention Arab queens in the north.[12] Queens are well attested in Arabia, though according to Kitchen, not after 690 B.C.[7] Furthermore, Sabaean tribes knew the title of mqtwyt ("high official"). Makada or Makueda, the personal name of the queen in Ethiopian legend, might be interpreted as a popular rendering of the title of mqtwyt.[13] This title may be derived from Ancient Egyptian m'kit (?￰ﾓﾎﾡ?￰ﾓﾏﾏ? ) "protectress, housewife".[14] The queen's visit could have been a trade mission.[8][10] Early South Arabian trade with Mesopotamia involving wood and spices transported by camels is attested in the early ninth century B.C. and may have begun as early as the tenth.[7] The ancient Sabaic Awwām Temple, known in folklore as Maḥram ("the Sanctuary of") Bilqīs, was recently excavated by archaeologists, but no trace of the Queen of Sheba has been discovered so far in the many inscriptions found there.[8] Another Sabean temple, the Barran Temple (Arabic: معبد بران‎), is also known as the 'Arash Bilqis ("Throne of Bilqis"), which like the nearby Awam Temple was also dedicated to the god Almaqah, but the connection between the Barran Temple and Sheba has not been established archaeologically either.[15] Bible stories of the Queen of Sheba and the ships of Ophir served as a basis for legends about the Israelites traveling in the Queen of Sheba's entourage when she returned to her country to bring up her child by Solomon.[16] Christian[edit] C King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, from The History of the True Cross by Piero della Francesca The Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba, Claude Lorrain (1600‒1682), oil on canvas Solomon and The Queen of Sheba, Giovanni De Min hristian scriptures mention a "queen of the South" (Greek: βασίλισσα νότου, Latin: Regina austri), who "came from the uttermost parts of the earth", i.e. from the extremities of the then known world, to hear the wisdom of Solomon (Mt. 12:42; Lk. 11:31).[17] The mystical interpretation of the Song of Songs, which was felt as supplying a literal basis for the speculations of the allegorists, makes its first appearance in Origen, who wrote a voluminous commentary on the Song of Songs.[18] In his commentary, Origen identified the bride of the Song of Songs with the "queen of the South" of the Gospels, i.e. the Queen of Sheba, who is assumed to have been Ethiopian.[19] Others have proposed either the marriage of Solomon with Pharaoh's daughter, or his marriage with an Israelite woman, the Shulamite. The former was the favorite opinion of the mystical interpreters to the end of the 18th century; the latter has obtained since its introduction by Good (1803).[18] The bride of the Canticles is assumed to have been black due to a passage in Song of Songs 1:5, which the Revised Standard Version (1952) translates as "I am very dark, but comely", as does Jerome (Latin: Nigra sum, sed formosa), while the New Revised Standard Version (1989) has "I am black and beautiful", as the Septuagint (Ancient Greek: μέλαινα εἰμί καί καλή).[20] One legend has it that the Queen of Sheba brought Solomon the same gifts that the Magi later gave to Christ.[21] During the Middle Ages, Christians sometimes identified the queen of Sheba with the sibyl Sabba.[22] Coptic[edit] The story of Solomon and the queen was popular among Copts, as shown by fragments of a Coptic legend preserved in a Berlin papyrus. The queen, having been subdued by deceit, gives Solomon a pillar on which all earthly science is inscribed. Solomon sends one of his demons to fetch the pillar from Ethiopia, whence it instantly arrives. In a Coptic poem, queen Yesaba of Cush asks riddles of Solomon.[23] Ethiopian[edit] 17th-century AD painting of the Queen of Sheba from a church in Lalibela, Ethiopia and now in the National Museum of Ethiopia in Addis Ababa The fullest and most significant version of the legend appears in the Kebra Nagast (Glory of the Kings), the Ethiopian national saga, translated from Arabic in 1322.[24][25][26] Here Menelik I is the child of Solomon and Makeda (the Ethiopic name for the queen of Sheba) from whom the Ethiopian dynasty claims descent to the present day. While the Abyssinian story offers much greater detail, it omits any mention of the Queen's hairy legs or any other element that might reflect on her unfavourably.[1][27] Based on the Gospels of Matthew (12:42) and Luke (11:31), the "queen of the South" is claimed to be the queen of Ethiopia. In those times, King Solomon sought merchants from all over the world, in order to buy materials for the building of the Temple. Among them was Tamrin, great merchant of Queen Makeda of Ethiopia. Having returned to Ethiopia, Tamrin told the queen of the wonderful things he had seen in Jerusalem, and of Solomon's wisdom and generosity, whereupon she decided to visit Solomon. She was warmly welcomed, given a palace for dwelling, and received great gifts every day. Solomon and Makeda spoke with great wisdom, and instructed by him, she converted to Judaism. Before she left, there was a great feast in the king's palace. Makeda stayed in the palace overnight, after Solomon had sworn that he would not do her any harm, while she swore in return that she would not steal from him. As the meals had been spicy, Makeda awoke thirsty at night, and went to drink some water, when Solomon appeared, reminding her of her oath. She answered: "Ignore your oath, just let me drink water." That same night, Solomon had a dream about the sun rising over Israel, but being mistreated and despised by the Jews, the sun moved to shine over Ethiopia and Rome (i.e. the Byzantine empire). Solomon gave Makeda a ring as a token of faith, and then she left. On her way home, she gave birth to a son, whom she named Baina-leḥkem (i.e. bin al-ḥakīm, "Son of the Wise Man", later called Menilek). After the boy had grown up in Ethiopia, he went to Jerusalem carrying the ring, and was received with great honors. The king and the people tried in vain to persuade him to stay. Solomon gathered his nobles and announced that he would send his first-born son to Ethiopia together with their first-borns. He added that he was expecting a third son, who would marry the king of Rome's daughter and reign over Rome, so that the entire world would be ruled by David's descendants. Then Baina-leḥkem was anointed king by Zadok the high priest, and he took the name David. The first-born nobles who followed him are named, and even today some Ethiopian families claim their ancestry from them. Prior to leaving, the priests' sons had stolen the Ark of the Covenant, after their leader Azaryas had offered a sacrifice as commanded by one God's angel. With much wailing, the procession left Jerusalem on a wind cart lead and carried by the archangel Michael. Having arrived at the Red Sea, Azaryas revealed to the people that the Ark is with them. David prayed to the Ark and the people rejoiced, singing, dancing, blowing horns and flutes, and beating drums. The Ark showed its miraculous powers during the crossing of the stormy Sea, and all arrived unscathed. When Solomon learned that the Ark had been stolen, he sent a horseman after the thieves, and even gave chase himself, but neither could catch them. Solomon returned to Jerusalem, and gave orders to the priests to remain silent about the theft and to place a copy of the Ark in the Temple, so that the foreign nations could not say that Israel had lost its fame.[28][29] According to some sources, Queen Makeda was part of the dynasty founded by Za Besi Angabo in 1370 B.C., with her grandfather and father being the last male rulers of the royal line. The family's intended choice to rule Aksum was Makeda's brother, Prince Nourad, but his early death led to her succession to the throne. She apparently ruled the Ethiopian kingdom for more than 50 years.[30] In the Ethiopian Book of Aksum, Makeda is described as establishing a new capital city at Azeba.[citation needed] Edward Ullendorff holds that Makeda is a corruption of Candace, the name or title of several Ethiopian queens from Meroe or Seba. Candace was the name of that queen of the Ethiopians whose chamberlain was converted to Christianity under the preaching of Philip the Evangelist (Acts 8:27) in 30 A.D. In the 14th century (?) Ethiopic version of the Alexander romance, Alexander the Great of Macedonia (Ethiopic Meqédon) is said to have met a queen Kandake of Nubia.[31] Historians believe that the Solomonic dynasty actually began in 1270 with the emperor Yekuno Amlak, who, with the support of the Ethiopian Church, overthrew the Zagwe Dynasty, which had ruled Ethiopia since sometime during the 10th century. The link to King Solomon provided a strong foundation for Ethiopian national unity. "Ethiopians see their country as God's chosen country, the final resting place that he chose for the Ark – and Sheba and her son were the means by which it came there".[32] Despite the fact that the dynasty officially ended in 1769 with Emperor Iyoas, Ethiopian rulers continued to trace their connection to it, right up to the last 20th-century emperor, Haile Selassie.[27] According to one tradition, the Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel, "Falashas") also trace their ancestry to Menelik I, son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.[33] An opinion that appears more historical is that the Falashas descend from those Jews who settled in Egypt after the first exile, and who, upon the fall of the Persian domination (539–333 B.C.) on the borders of the Nile, penetrated into the Sudan, whence they went into the western parts of Abyssinia.[34] Several emperors have stressed the importance of the Kebra Negast. One of the first instances of this can be traced in a letter from Prince Kasa (King John IV) to Queen Victoria in 1872.[35] Kasa states, "There is a book called Kebra Nagast which contains the law of the whole of Ethiopia, and the names of the shums (governors), churches and provinces are in this book. I pray you will find out who has got this book and send it to me, for in my country my people will not obey my orders without it."[32] Despite the historic importance given to the Kebra Negast, there is still doubt to whether or not the Queen sat on the throne. Jewish[edit] According to Josephus (Ant. 8:165–173), the queen of Sheba was the queen of Egypt and Ethiopia, and brought to Israel the first specimens of the balsam, which grew in the Holy Land in the historian's time.[8][36] Josephus (Antiquities 2.5‒2.10) represents Cambyses as conquering the capital of Aethiopia, and changing its name from Seba to Meroe.[37] Josephus affirms that the Queen of Sheba or Saba came from this region, and that it bore the name of Saba before it was known by that of Meroe. There seems also some affinity between the word Saba and the name or title of the kings of the Aethiopians, Sabaco.[38] The Talmud (Bava Batra 15b) insists that it was not a woman but a kingdom of Sheba (based on varying interpretations of Hebrew mlkt) that came to Jerusalem, obviously intended to discredit existing stories about the relations between Solomon and the Queen.[1] Baba Bathra 15b: "Whoever says malkath Sheba (I Kings X, 1) means a woman is mistaken; ... it means the kingdom (מַלְכֻת) of Sheba".[39] This is explained to mean that she was a woman who was not in her position because of being married to the king, but through her own merit.[40] The most elaborate account of the queen's visit to Solomon is given in the Targum Sheni to Esther (see: Colloquy of the Queen of Sheba). A hoopoe informed Solomon that the kingdom of Sheba was the only kingdom on earth not subject to him and that its queen was a sun worshiper. He thereupon sent it to Kitor in the land of Sheba with a letter attached to its wing commanding its queen to come to him as a subject. She thereupon sent him all the ships of the sea loaded with precious gifts and 6,000 youths of equal size, all born at the same hour and clothed in purple garments. They carried a letter declaring that she could arrive in Jerusalem within three years although the journey normally took seven years. When the queen arrived and came to Solomon's palace, thinking that the glass floor was a pool of water, she lifted the hem of her dress, uncovering her legs. Solomon informed her of her mistake and reprimanded her for her hairy legs. She asked him three (Targum Sheni to Esther 1:3) or, according to the Midrash (Prov. ii. 6; Yalḳ. ii., § 1085, Midrash ha-Hefez), more riddles to test his wisdom.[1][7][8][36] A Yemenite manuscript entitled "Midrash ha-Hefez" (published by S. Schechter in Folk-Lore, 1890, pp. 353 et seq.) gives nineteen riddles, most of which are found scattered through the Talmud and the Midrash, which the author of the "Midrash ha-Hefez" attributes to the Queen of Sheba.[41] Most of these riddles are simply Bible questions, some not of a very edifying character. The two that are genuine riddles are: "Without movement while living, it moves when its head is cut off", and "Produced from the ground, man produces it, while its food is the fruit of the ground". The answer to the former is, "a tree, which, when its top is removed, can be made into a moving ship"; the answer to the latter is, "a wick".[42] The rabbis who denounce Solomon interpret I Kings 10:13 as meaning that Solomon had criminal intercourse with the Queen of Sheba, the offspring of which was Nebuchadnezzar, who destroyed the Temple (comp. Rashi ad loc.). According to others, the sin ascribed to Solomon in I Kings 11:7 et seq. is only figurative: it is not meant that Solomon fell into idolatry, but that he was guilty of failing to restrain his wives from idolatrous practises (Shab. 56b).[41] The Alphabet of Sirach avers that Nebuchadnezzar was the fruit of the union between Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.[1] In the Kabbalah, the Queen of Sheba was considered one of the queens of the demons and is sometimes identified with Lilith, first in the Targum of Job (1:15), and later in the Zohar and the subsequent literature. A Jewish and Arab myth maintains that the Queen was actually a jinn, half human and half demon.[43][44] In Ashkenazi folklore, the figure merged with the popular image of Helen of Troy or the Frau Venus of German mythology. Ashkenazi incantations commonly depict the Queen of Sheba as a seductive dancer. Until recent generations she was popularly pictured as a snatcher of children and a demonic witch.[44] Islam[edit] I Bilqis reclining in a garden, Persian miniature (c. 1595), tinted drawing on paper Illustration in a Hafez Frontispiece Depicting Queen Sheba, Walters manuscript W.631, around 1539 found [there] a woman ruling them, and she has been given of all things, and she has a great throne. I found her and her people prostrating to the sun instead of Allah, and Satan has made their deeds pleasing to them and averted them from [His] way, so they are not guided. — Quran 27:23–24[45] In the above ayah, after scouting nearby lands, a bird known as the hud-hud (hoopoe) returns to King Solomon relating that the land of Sheba is ruled by a Queen. In a letter, Solomon invites the Queen of Sheba, who like her followers had worshipped the sun, to submit to Allah. She expresses that the letter is noble and asks her chief advisers what action should be taken. They respond by mentioning that her kingdom is known for its might and inclination towards war, however that the command rests solely with her. In an act suggesting the diplomatic qualities of her leadership,[46] she responds not with brute force, but by sending her ambassadors to present a gift to King Solomon. He refuses the gift, declaring that Allah gives far superior gifts and that the ambassadors are the ones only delighted by the gift. King Solomon instructs the ambassadors to return to the Queen with a stern message that if he travels to her, he will bring a contingent that she cannot defeat. The Queen then makes plans to visit him at his palace. Before she arrives, King Solomon has her throne moved to his palace with the aid of a scholar of the scripture, who was able to move the throne in the blink of an eye. King Solomon disguises her throne to test her awareness, asking her if it seems familiar. She answers that during her journey to him, her court had informed her that the throne disappeared and since then she and her subjects had made the intention to submit to Allah. King Solomon then explains that Allah is the only god that she should worship, not to be included alongside other false gods that she used to worship. Later the Queen of Sheba is requested to enter a palatial hall. Upon first view she mistakes the hall for a lake and raises her skirt to not wet her clothes. King Solomon informs her that is not water rather it is smooth slabs of glass. Recognising that it was a marvel of construction which she had not seen the likes of before, she declares that in the past she had harmed her own soul but now submits, with King Solomon, to Allah (27:22–44).[47] She was told, "Enter the palace." But when she saw it, she thought it was a body of water and uncovered her shins [to wade through]. He said, "Indeed, it is a palace [whose floor is] made smooth with glass." She said, "My Lord, indeed I have wronged myself, and I submit with Solomon to Allah, Lord of the worlds." — Quran 27:44[48] The story of the Queen of Sheba in the Quran shares some similarities with the Bible and other Jewish sources.[8] Some Muslim commentators such as Al-Tabari, Al-Zamakhshari and Al-Baydawi supplement the story. Here they claim that the Queen's name is Bilqīs (Arabic: بِلْقِيْس‎), probably derived from Greek: παλλακίς, romanized: pallakis or the Hebraised pilegesh ("concubine"). The Quran does not name the Queen, referring to her as "a woman ruling them" (Arabic: امْرَأَةً تَمْلِكُهُمْ‎),[49] the nation of Sheba.[50] According to some, he then married the Queen, while other traditions say that he gave her in marriage to a King of Hamdan.[1] According to the scholar Al-Hamdani, the Queen of Sheba was the daughter of Ilsharah Yahdib, the Himyarite king of Najran.[13] In another tale, she is said to be the daughter of spiritual creature (Jinn) and a human.[51] According to E. Ullendorff, the Quran and its commentators have preserved the earliest literary reflection of her complete legend, which among scholars complements the narrative that is derived from a Jewish tradition,[1] this assuming to be the Targum Sheni. However, according to the Encyclopaedia Judaica Targum Sheni is dated to around 700[52] similarly the general consensus is to date Targum Sheni to late 7th- or early 8th century,[53] which post-dates the advent of Islam by almost 200 years. Furthermore, M. J. Berdichevsky[54] explains that this Targum is the earliest narrative articulation of Queen of Sheba in Jewish tradition. Yoruba[edit] Main article: Sungbo's Eredo The Yoruba Ijebu clan of Ijebu-Ode, Nigeria, claim that she was a wealthy, childless noblewoman of theirs known as Oloye Bilikisu Sungbo. They also assert that a medieval system of walls and ditches, known as the Eredo and built sometime around the 10th century, was dedicated to her. After excavations in 1999 the archaeologist Patrick Darling was quoted as saying, "I don't want to overplay the Sheba theory, but it cannot be discounted ... The local people believe it and that's what is important ... The most cogent argument against it at the moment is the dating

Model of Herod's Renovation of the Temple of Jerusalem by Berthold Werner (Public Domain) Although theology is a component of Solomon’s writings, the wisdom genre (also seen in Egyptian and Akkadian literature) focuses more on areas outside of theology - providing advice on the created world, relationships, practical matters, and assorted personal topics or challenges. Thus, Proverbs deals with the art of living, with how to make intelligent choices for one’s future well-being. The Song of Songs (or Song of Solomon) is a romantic poem that presents the ultimate union between the bride and the bridegroom, focusing on themes of love, wisdom, beauty, power, desire, sex, loyalty, etc. The Book of Ecclesiastes is a royal testament that includes personal reflections, meditations, and instructions on the meaning and purposes of life, alluding to several aspects that would have been relevant to Solomon’s own personal experiences - wisdom, futility, riches, servants, hedonism, productivity, and humble self-realization. Although Solomon was the original sage for many of his proverbs, he also searched his kingdom and empire for other writings and ideas of erudite men and included them in his compilations. Outside of the Hebrew scriptures, writings also exist that are attributed to King Solomon. In the Pseudepigrapha, The Testament of Solomon is a 3rd century CE book that syncretizes magic, astrology, and demonology to discuss the construction of the Temple among other sub-topics. In the Apocrypha, the Wisdom of Solomon is a deuterocanonical collection of wisdom sayings attributed to King Solomon (based on chapter 9:7–8), although the Muratorian Fragment suggests that it was "written by the friends of Solomon in his honour." Losing Favour With God  Despite all these great accomplishments, the Hebrew scriptures indicate that the decline of Solomon was similar to the fall of the previous kings of United Israel - similar, in that personal vanity and religious/moral compromise led to social disintegration and strife. Solomon slowly deprioritized his relationship and obligations to God in order to appease his many foreign wives and in order to protect the prosperity and longevity of his rule. Ultimately, “[Solomon’s] wives turned his heart after other gods, and his heart was not fully devoted to the Lord his God, as the heart of David his father had been” (1 Kings 11). Solomon’s ungrateful, disloyal actions and attitude - despite being the wisest and most blessed man on the earth - provoked the anger and judgment of the Lord. Thus, although still able to keep control of the nation of Israel because of God’s promise to King David, Solomon lost the protection and favor of God that earlier had provided remarkable peace and prosperity when he was obedient to God. Solomon soon found new challenges from within and without his kingdom, including Jeroboam who was promised to reign over Israel by the Prophet Ahijah, from Hadad of Edom who challenged Solomon’s territorial control in the southern territory of Israel, and from Rezon of Damascus, who threatened Solomon’s control over the northern territory of Israel. King Solomon died of natural causes in 931 BCE at the age of 80. His son, Rehoboam, inherited the throne, which led to a civil war and the end of the United Kingdom of Israel in in 930 BCE. Epigraphical & Archaeological Evidence for King Solomon As with King David, verifying the existence of King Solomon is challenging, at best, especially since epigraphs typically provide imprecise information, and the biblical accounts rest upon a presupposition of supernatural realities. Although there is much archaeological and epigraphical evidence to substantiate the possibility of some/many (non-supernatural) scriptural assertions, archaeological finds to date have provided mostly indirect affirmation. With such huge gaps in archaeological evidence and with the contamination of too many archaeological fields, it is easy to speculate, theorize, or make an argument from silence, but it is difficult to empirically prove or disprove the existence of Solomon. Still, some provocative-yet-controversial archaeological finds have been recently unearthed over the last century that require consideration. Although its first discoverer is unknown, in 1828 CE, Jean–François Champollion, who also discovered the Rosetta Stone in 1799 CE, examined the Bubastite Portal gate (built in 925 BCE) at the temple of Amun in Thebes. On its walls, among the historical paintings, a long list of defeated peoples by Pharaoh Shoshenq is accessible, including those from the “Highland/Heights of David,” presumably led by King Rehoboam, which led Champollion to conclude that Pharaoh Shoshenq and King Shishak of Egypt, as referenced in 1 Kings in the Hebrew scriptures, are one and the same. In 1868 CE, Missionary Frederick Augustus Klein discovered an intact stele in Dhiban, Jordan, called the “Mesha Stele” or the “Moabite Stone,” with text that he could not read. Although the stele was smashed by contentious locals the next year, a papier-måché impression had been made of it and the stele was reassembled. The inscription on the stele references the Moabites, their god, and also references the nation of Israel and  Omri, her sixth king. Similar finds such as the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III and the Chronicle of Sennacherib also confirm the existence of Israelite kings during the Assyrian hegemony. The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, side A, 2nd register by Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (CC BY-NC-SA) Between 1957 CE and 1971 CE, archaeologist Yigael Yadin began excavations at two of the three cities mentioned in 1 Kings 9 (fully at Hazor and in a cursory investigation at Megiddo), which had gates supposedly built by King Solomon c. 960 BCE. Based on compared archaeological evidence from all three sites, which included Macalister’s excavation report at Gezer from 1902–09 CE, Yadin concluded that the three city gates were designed by the same engineer (based on the same structural dimensions), built by the same workers (stylistically and methodologically from Phoenicia), and utilized the same material (they contained ashlar masonry quarried in Tyre). Additionally, in the 1860s CE, Charles Warren discovered a wall and courtyard in Jerusalem that were later found to be identical to the one in Megiddo and dating from the period of King Solomon. In 1993 CE, Avraham Biran discovered the Tel Dan Inscription on a broken stele in northern Israel.  The inscription commemorates the victory of an Aramean king over its southern neighbors, and specifically references both the “king of Israel,” and the “king of the House of David.” This is perhaps the first real, direct, historical evidence for the Davidic Dynasty in Israel. In 2010 CE, Eilat Mazar and her team discovered a 10th century BCE wall between the Temple Mount and the modern-day Arab neighborhood of Silwan. The wall was part of a larger complex that included a gatehouse, guard tower, and other buildings. Based on artifacts found in and around the area, Mazar suspects that the wall is at least 3,000 years old, which would place its construction in the time period of King Solomon (as referenced in 1 Kings). In 2012 CE, Eilat Mazar and her archaeological team discovered an ancient structure at the Ophel in Jerusalem that dated back to the Solomonic era. In a bedrock depression within that structure, the archaeologists also discovered a large storage jar (or pithos) with the earliest alphabetical letters ever found in Jerusalem written on an earthenware jug. Although the seals do not directly reference King David or King Solomon, the Ophel Inscription not only suggests an advanced society living in Jerusalem earlier than previously believed; it also indicates a fully-functioning administration that collected taxes and implemented regulations during the period of King Solomon’s reign. In 2013 CE, Erez Ben-Yosef and his archaeological team discovered radiocarbon dating evidence forcing many archaeologists and historians to revise their presumptions about the copper mines in Israel’s Aravah Desert.  Previously assumed to be Egyptian, the new evidence suggests that the mines were actually operated by the Edomites, the ancient enemies of Israel repeatedly referenced in the Hebrew scriptures, who lived during the period of Solomon. In 2014 CE, students and faculty from Mississippi State University discovered six official clay seals in southern Israel near Gaza. Although the seals do not directly reference King David or King Solomon, the Khirbet Summeily clay seals indicate official government activity in 10th century BCE, which had been assumed to be too tribal for such sophistication. In 2016 CE, Israeli archaeologists discovered numerous small artifacts from the Temple Mount, which have been dated to the time of the First Temple, nearly 3,000 years ago. Shards from the archaeological dig include pottery fragments (a standard in general archaeological dating), olive pits, animal bones, and they all share a uniform date from the Solomonic period, according to the team’s findings. Conclusion By no means conclusive, the aforementioned discoveries do give some credence to the theory that a United Kingdom of Israel once existed in the Mediterranean region although Israel’s regional influence, military prowess, infrastructural contributions, and early pivotal leaders are still somewhat veiled. Fortunately, new archaeological discoveries continue to be made and advanced technology continues to bring to light the shadows of that which has been hidden for centuries and centuries. Archaeological and historical evidence of other kings of Israel and Judah - such as Omri, Ahab, Joram, Ahaziah, Jehu, Hezekiah - have been uncovered in the historical landscape (and one could conceivably expect more to follow). Still, considering the traditional view of King Solomon as the wisest, most prosperous man on earth and King of his time (and of all future kings of Israel), the lack of direct historical and archaeological references to him, to the name “King Solomon” outside of the Hebrew scriptures, which portray him as the wisest of all fools, is quite ironical or evidential, indeed. YORUBA LEGENDS I
THE KINGDOM OF THE YORUBAS THE ancient King Oduduwa had a great many grandchildren, and on his death he divided among them all his possessions. But his youngest grandson, Oranyan, was at that time away hunting, and when he returned home he learnt that his brothers and cousins had inherited the old King’s money, cattle, beads, native cloths, and crowns, but that to himself nothing was left but twenty-one pieces of iron, a cock, and some soil tied up in a rag.  At that time the whole earth was covered with water, on the surface of which the people lived.  The resourceful Oranyan spread upon the water his pieces of iron, and upon the iron he placed the scrap of cloth, and upon the cloth the soil, and on the soil the cock. p. 2 The cock scratched with his feet and scattered the soil far and wide, so that the ocean was partly filled up and islands appeared everywhere. The pieces of iron became the mineral wealth hidden under the ground.  Now Oranyan’s brothers and cousins all desired to live on the land, and Oranyan allowed them to do so on payment of tribute. He thus became King of all the Yorubas, and was rich and prosperous through his grandfather’s inheritance. II
HOW TRIBAL MARKS CAME TO BE USED A CERTAIN King named Sango sent two slaves to a distant country on an important mission.  In due course they returned, and he found that one slave had achieved successfully what he had been sent to do, while the other had accomplished nothing. The p. 3 King therefore rewarded the first with high honours, and commanded the second to receive a hundred and twenty-two razor cuts all over his body.  This was a severe punishment, but when the scars healed, they gave to the slave a very remarkable appearance, which greatly took the fancy of the King’s wives.  Sango therefore decided that cuts should in future be given, not as punishment, but as a sign of royalty, and he placed himself at once in the hands of the markers. However, he could only bear two cuts, and so from that day two cuts on the arm have been the sign of royalty, and various other cuts came to be the marks of different tribes. III
AKITI THE HUNTER A FAMOUS hunter and wrestler named Akiti boasted that he was stronger than any other man or animal. He had easily overcome a giant, a leopard, a lion, a wolf, and p. 4 a boa-constrictor, and as nobody else opposed his claim, he called himself “the King of the forest.”  Wherever he went, he sang his triumphant wrestling-song, and everyone feared and respected him. But he had forgotten the Elephant, who is a very wise animal and knows many charms. One day the Elephant challenged him and declared that he had no right to call himself “King,” as the Elephant himself was the monarch of the forest and could not be defeated.  Akiti thereupon flung his spear at his enemy, but because of the Elephant’s charm, the weapon glanced off his hide and did him no harm. Akiti next tried his bow and poisoned arrows, and his hunting-knife, but still without effect.  However, the hunter also possessed a charm, and by using it, he changed himself into a lion and flew at the Elephant, but the Elephant flung him off. Next he became a serpent, but he could not succeed in crushing the Elephant to death. p. 5  At last he changed himself into a fly, and flew into the Elephant’s large flapping ear. He went right down inside until he came to the heart, and then he changed himself into a man again and cut up the heart with his hunting-knife. At last the Elephant fell dead, and Akiti stepped out of his body in triumph, for he was now without question “the King of the forest.”
IV
SONS OF STICKS A GREAT King sent his various sons to rule over different parts of his kingdom, and all were satisfied but one, the youngest and most ambitious, who returned to his father after some time with the complaint that his territory was much too small and his subjects too few.  The King was displeased with his son, and sent for a large bundle of sticks, which he converted into human beings.  “Here are some more subjects for you!” he said to the astonished Prince. p. 6  From that time the tribe was famous for its strength and stupidity, and went by the nickname of “Sons of Sticks,” or “Ọmọ igi”!

V
WHY WOMEN HAVE LONG HAIR TWO women quarrelled, and one of them went out secretly at night and dug a deep pit in the middle of the path leading from her enemy’s house to the village well.  Early next morning, when all were going to the well for water with jars balanced on their heads, this woman fell into the pit and cried loudly for help.  Her friends ran to her and, seizing her by the hair, began to pull her out of the pit. To their surprise, her hair stretched as they pulled, and by the time she was safely on the path, her hair was as long as a man’s arm.  This made her very much ashamed, and she ran away and hid herself.  But after a while she realized that her long hair was beautiful, and then she felt p. 7 very proud and scorned all the short-haired women, jeering at them. When they saw this, they were consumed with jealousy, and began to be ashamed of their short hair. “We have men’s hair,” they said to one another. “How beautiful it would be to have long hair!”  So one by one they jumped into the pit, and their friends pulled them out by the hair.  And in this way they, and all women after them, had long hair. https://guardian.ng/life/sango-and-oya-when-love-burns/ The tragic Shakespearean love story of Romeo and Juliet is universally celebrated as the true definition of what love is: the two impressionable minds see past the inter-family feud and stand firm in the face of the opposition to what they hold dear. And at the end, only death can lay its cold hands on their burning desire successfully. Death also plays a significant role in an equally tragic love story between Sango, a powerful Alaafin of Old Oyo Empire and Oya, his concubine who was a spirit with powers to transform into animals and summon rain.

Oya and Sango. Photo – Pinterest

Sango had other women in his life – Oshun, the first and the one historians considered to be the legitimate wife and Oba was the second. The first two wives posed big competition. But Oya had something they both lacked. She became Sango’s favourite and the bond between them was made stronger due to the complimentary superpowers they possessed. And together, they were a powerful force. When it’s time to ravage their enemies, Oya, who had the power to summon wind, would lead the charge. With her power, she would blow off roofs, fall trees and breathe life into the fire set by Sango’s thunder. Generally, Oya was more than a wife to Sango. They were like Bob and Helen Parr of The Incredibles.

https://norsemythologyinformation.weebly.com/odin-and-frigga.html Odin and Frigga were the King and Queen of all the gods. Odin was a stern and sometimes cruel King. He had great power that he sometimes used for unjustified purposes. He could be spiteful and his anger was feared by many. He was worshipped by those oh high standard such as kings or nobles, and was greatly respected. He was the god of battle, poetry, wisdom, and the dead. Whenever he struck his spear to the ground, battle would begin. He decided the outcome of every battle. He also decided which fallen warriors would join him in his two halls Valhalla and Valaskjalf.He had two ravens named Huninn(Thought) and Muninn(Memory), which flew over the Worlds and returned to him with information on important happenings. He obtained the Mead of Poetry from Jotunheim and sometimes gifted humans with its contents in order to inspire them to poetic greatness. He achieved great wisdom by sacrificing one of his eyes to Mimir, the guardian of the Fountain of Mimir or Knowledge. He also allowed himself to become a sacrificial victim, impaling himself on a branch of Yggdrasil for nine days, after which he died, learning the wisdom of the dead. At Ragnarok, Odin will be killed by Fenrir, the giant wolf, but avenged by his son Vidar.

Frigga was Odin's loving and faithful wife. She was a mother goddess and cared for all humans, though she was partial to mothers and children. They had two sons together: Balder, the god of light, purity, and beauty and Bragi, the god of poetry, elegance, and wisdom. Frigga was able to see into the future, but she never revealed what she saw.  https://greekgodsandgoddesses.net/gods/hephaestus/ HOME » GREEK GODS » HEPHAESTUS Hephaestus Greek God of Fire and Metalworking Hephaestus was the god of fire, metalworking, stone masonry, forges and the art of sculpture. He was the son of ZEUS and HERA and married to APHRODITE by Zeus to prevent a war of the gods fighting for her hand. He was a smithing god, making all of the weapons for Olympus and acting as a blacksmith for the gods. He had his own palace on Olympus where he made many clever inventions and automatons of metal to work for him. Hephaestus’s ugly appearance was the reason Zeus chose him to marry Aphrodite, but despite this she had many affairs with both gods and men. In one story, Hephaestus builds a tricky invention which catches Aphrodite laying with the ARES, the god of war, trapping them both in the bed to be laughed at and ridiculed by the other gods. He is similar to ATHENA in his giving skill and help to mortals – in his case artists. It was believed that Hephaestus taught men the arts alongside Athena. However, he was also considered far inferior to that of the goddess of wisdom. Facts about Hephaestus Hephaestus was known as the God of Fire. In some accounts, he was said to be the son of Zeus and Hera; in others, he was the son of Hera alone, conceived in order to get back at Zeus for bringing forth Athena. Hephaestus was the only ugly god among perfectly beautiful immortals. Hephaestus was born deformed and was cast out of heaven by one or both of his parents when they noticed that he was imperfect. He was the workman of the immortals: he made their dwellings, furnishings, and weapons. In his workshop, Hephaestus had assistants who were made out of gold and who helped him with his work. His forge or workshop was located under a volcano, and the work he did within it caused frequent eruptions. In most accounts, Aphrodite is named as his wife, although she was unfaithful to him (with Ares, for one). Theirs was an arranged marriage. Hephaestus was a patron of the arts. He was a kind and peace-loving god. In art, Hephaestus is usually depicted as bending over an anvil or walking with the assistance of a cane. He was worshipped primarily in Athens, where he had a temple. Hephaestus manufactured the aegis (or shield) that Athena is known for carrying. The arrows of Eros (known also as Cupid) were fashioned by Hephaestus as well. Hephaestus was the god of the ceremony when children were officially admitted to the city organization. According to a story told both by Homer and Hesiod, Hephaestus married Aglaia, one of the three Graces. Hephaestus was known for making a gold basket that Europa, daughter of the King of Sidon, used to gather flowers when she happened upon Zeus in the meadow. Hephaestus crafted the armor that Achilles wore in the Trojan War. The same arms, despite their connection to divinity, brought about the death of Ajax. Aphrodite gave Harmonia an extraordinary necklace made by Hephaestus. The piece of jewelry brought disaster to later generations. Erichthonius was the son of Hephaestus: he was half man, half serpent. Maat was also the goddess who personified these concepts, and regulated the stars, seasons, and the actions of mortals and the deities who had brought order from chaos at the moment of creation Themis (/ˈθiːmɪs/; Ancient Greek: Θέμις) is an ancient GreekTitaness. She is described as "[the Lady] of good counsel", and is the personification of divine order, fairness, law, natural law, and custom. Her symbols are the Scales of Justice, tools used to remain balanced and pragmatic.
A long time ago a bold young Arawâk hunter captured a beautiful royal vulture. She is the daughter of Anuanima, sovereign of a race which has its country above the sky. When at home there, they cease to be birds, and assume the form and habits of human beings. The captive, smitten with love for her handsome captor, lays aside her feathers, and appears before him as a beautiful girl. She becomes his wife, bears him above the clouds, and, after much trouble, persuades her father and family to receive him. All then goes well, until he expresses a wish to visit his aged mother, when they discard him, and set him on the top of a very high tree, the trunk of which is covered with formidable prickles. He appeals pathetically to all the living creatures around. Then spiders spin cords to help him, and fluttering birds ease his descent, so that at last he reaches the ground in safety. Her family seek to destroy him, but by his strength and sagacity he is victorious in every encounter. The birds at length espouse his cause, assemble their forces, and bear him as their commander above the sky. He is at last slain by a valiant young warrior, resembling himself in person and features. It is his own son, born after his expulsion from the upper regions, and brought up there in ignorance of his father. the royal vultures, who, hemmed in by crowds of hostile birds, are unable to use their wings, and forced to fight and die in their human forms

Queen Nanny, Granny Nanny or Nanny (c. 1686 – c. 1755), led a community of formerly enslaved Africans called the Windward Maroons.[1] In the early 18th century, they fought a multi-year war against British colonizers in Jamaica. Queen Nanny was born in what is today Ghana of the Akan or Ashanti people.[2] According to the oral tradition and at least one documentary source, she was never enslaved.[2] Although widely assumed that she arrived in Jamaica as a slave, how she arrived in Jamaica is not certain. In 1976 Jamaica declared Nanny as their only female national hero celebrating her success as a leader, military tactician and strategist.[3] During the years of warfare, the British suffered horrendous losses in their encounters with the Windward Maroons. Many attributed their mastery over the British to the successful use of supernatural powers by Nanny. This reputation coupled with the losses terrorized the British troops. Having failed to defeat them on the battle field, the British sued for peace signing a treaty with them on April 20, 1740.[2] The treaty stopped the hostilities, provided for state sanctioned freedom for the Maroons, and a granted 500 acres of land to Nanny and her followers. The village built on the land grant still stands and today is called Moore Town. It is also known as the New Nanny Town. Modern members of the Moore Town celebrate April 20, 1740 as a holiday. Her image is also on the Jamaican $500 bill which is called a Nanny. Biography[edit] Nanny was born into the Ashanti/Asante nation about 1686 in what is now Ghana, West Africa. There are two versions of her early story. It is not clear from objective sources which is accurate. In one she came as a free woman who may have even had her own slaves.In the other, she came to Jamaica as a slave but then escaped, perhaps even jumping off of the ship while it was off shore. However, the oral traditions about her arrival in Jamaica maintain that she was always free.[2] By 1720, Nanny and Quao, sometimes called her brother, settled and controlled an area in the Blue Mountains. It was later given the name Nanny Town. Nanny Town had a strategic location overlooking Stony River via a 900-foot (270 m) ridge, making a surprise attack by the British very difficult.[4] Nanny became a folk hero. While the British captured Nanny Town on more than one occasion, they were unable to hold on to it, in the wake of numerous guerrilla attacks from the Maroons. The Maroons waged a successful war against the British colonial forces over the course of a decade.[5] When Nanny Town was abandoned, the Windward Maroons under the command of Nanny moved to New Nanny Town, which consisted of 500 acres (2.4 km²) of land granted by the government to the refugee slaves under a 1740 treaty ending the First Maroon War.[6] Windward Maroons[edit] The Windward Maroons fought the British on the east side of the Island of Jamaica from their village in the Blue Mountains of Portland Parish.[2] They traced their heritage to the Africans who were brought to Jamaica by the Spanish during the Spanish rule of Jamaica 1509-1665. When the British conquered Jamaica, the Spanish left leaving many of their slaves. These formerly enslaved people, with their ranks enhanced with escaped and liberated slaves, became the core of the Windward Maroons. They staged a prolonged fight against British subjugation and enslavement.